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3.2 What is cognition? 89 I

about), discussion with others (or oneself), and the use of various kinds of artifacts,
(e.g., maps, books, and pen and paper). For example, when planning the best route
to get somewhere, say a foreign city, we may ask others, use a map, get instructions
from the web, or a combination of these. Reasoning also involves working through
different scenarios and deciding which is the best option or solution to a given
problem. In the route-planning activity we may be aware of alternative routes and
reason through the advantages and disadvantages of each route before deciding on
the best one. Many a family argument has come about because one member thinks
he or she knows the best route while another thinks otherwise.
Comparing different sources of information is also common practice when
seeking information on the web. For example, just as people will phone around for
a range of quotes, so too, will they use different search engines to find sites that
give the best deal or best information. If people have knowledge of the pros and
cons of different search engines, they may also select different ones for different
kinds of queries. For example, a student may use a more academically oriented one
when looking for information for writing an essay, and a more commercially based
one when trying to find out what's happening in town.
The extent to which people engage in the various forms of reflective cognition
depends on their level of experience with a domain, application, or skill. Novices
tend to have limited knowledge and will often make assumptions about what to do
using other knowledge about similar situations. They tend to act by trial and error,
exploring and experimenting with ways of doing things. As a result they may start
off being slow, making errors and generally being inefficient. They may also act ir-
rationally, following their superstitions and not thinking ahead to the consequences
of their actions. In contrast, experts have much more knowledge and experience
and are able to select optimal strategies for carrying out their tasks. They are likely
to be able to think ahead more, considering what the consequences might be of
opting for a particular move or solution (as do expert chess players).