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BOX 9.3 Assumptions of process views on innovation
• Innovation is a dynamic design and decision process that is by nature
both iterative and recursive and mediated by a range of cognitive, social
and organizational factors (Swan and Clark, 1992).
• This process is influenced, not simply by judgements about technical
efficiency, but also by the subjective beliefs, interpretations and knowl-
edge of different social groups and actors both inside and outside the
organization.
• Political interests, power and influence have a crucial impact on inno-
vation (Swan and Scarbrough, 2005; Utterback, 1994). For exam-
ple, firms may adopt innovations that are technically not the most
efficient for political reasons, or professional groups will promote
those new techniques and practices that enhance their own claims to
knowledge, status and power (Avgerou and McGrath, 2007; Hislop
et al., 2000).
• The innovation process is inherently uncertain and often sporadic
(Dodgson et al., 2005; Dougherty, 2007). Unintended outcomes
are common as different groups inside and outside the organization
attempt to mobilize innovation in directions that suit their particular
interests.
• Knowledge relevant to innovation may be widely distributed, both
inside and outside the organization. Implementation of new organiza-
tional and technological solutions involves the gathering of both special-
ist expertise and tacit knowledge about existing practices from a wide
range of sources, people and locations (Dhanaraj and Parkhe, 2006).
• The integration of relevant knowledge through the development of
social processes and networks is crucial for innovation. Such networks are
also important for encouraging the buy-in and commitment that helps
innovative ideas to be actually implemented in practice (von Hippel,
2005).
• The ability to effectively integrate knowledge – and innovation – is often
inhibited by structural, functional, occupational and status or hierarchi-
cal barriers (McLoughlin, 1999).

In sum, process views see innovation as a complex, iterative design and deci-
sion process involving the creation, diffusion, blending and implementation
of new ideas in different contexts. Success depends on constructing a process
that can draw upon widely distributed knowledge, is open to the views of the
different groups involved and is capable of gaining their commitment, as seen
in the Medico example. One such model, by Clark et al., 1992, is depicted

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