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242 MANAGING KNOWLEDGE WORK AND INNOVATION

>> THE IMPORTANCE OF THE WIDER SOCIAL CONTEXT
FOR MANAGING KNOWLEDGE WORK

The very different outcomes of attempts to manage knowledge work that we
see in all our cases have been explained for the most part in terms of manage-
ment practices and approaches. However, it is also clear from reviewing these
cases that there are significant societal influences at work here too. Consider,
for instance, the strong HRM orientation that we see in developments at LiftCo –
a company with a strong Swedish base – or the problems of decentraliza-
tion in the highly multinational BankCo organization. The classic account of
knowledge creation is based on a Japanese firm, where, as described by Nonaka
(1994), a knowledge spiral translates tacit knowledge into innovative products.
What is often forgotten in descriptions of the knowledge spiral is how far it
depends on the sheer dedication and collective team spirit which were charac-
teristic features of large Japanese firms around that time – and which depend
(or, arguably, depended) on the wider cultural norms, institutions and systems
of control in Japan.
There is also a large body of research that demonstrates the ways in which wider
institutional arrangements, such as the organization of professions, educational
systems and social and science policy, both structure and channel the production
and consumption of knowledge (Clark, 2000; Nowotny et al., 2001). This
research lies mainly outside the scope of this book, but it is important to be aware
of it because it underlines the influence of the societal and institutional context
on the management of knowledge work. Although this influence is often diffuse
and difficult to specify, its importance is not to be underestimated. The recent
shift we have seen towards organization’s adopting an open innovation model
(Chapter 9) is a good example of fundamental change in the way organizations
interact with consumers and how the boundaries between the two are becoming
increasingly blurred. This serves as a useful example of the way in which approaches
to managing knowledge work themselves need to be constantly revised in the
light of different stakeholders and new modes of organizing.
The summative case in this final chapter: BioTech aims to explore both the
internal organizational knowledge practices, processes and context in combina-
tion with some consideration of specific sectoral and institutional challenges that
influence knowledge work in the biomedical sector. As in previous chapters,
following the Conclusions, the case is described. This is followed by a set of
questions for analysis.

>> CONCLUSIONS
The points in this chapter, along with the case analyses and discussions in
previous chapters, all reinforce the value of adopting process and practice
perspectives on knowledge work. These perspectives recognize, given differ-
ences in contexts and practices, that alternative interpretations, meanings and
understandings are inevitable, even when people are presented with the same

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