Page 134 - Media Effects Advances in Theory and Research

6. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF MASS COMMUNICATION 123

People gain understanding of causal relationships and expand their
knowledge by operating symbolically on the wealth of information
derived from personal and vicarious experiences. They generate solutions
to problems, evaluate their likely outcomes, and pick suitable options
without having to go through a laborious behavioral search. Through the
medium of symbols, people can communicate with others at any distance
in time and space. However, in keeping with the interactional perspective,
social cognitive theory devotes much attention to the social origins of
thought and the mechanisms through which social factors exert their
influence on cognitive functioning. The other distinctive human capabili-
ties are founded on this advanced capacity for symbolization.

SELF-REGULATORY CAPABILITY

People are not only knowers and performers. They are also self-reactors
with a capacity for self-direction. Effective functioning requires the sub-
stitution of self-regulation for external sanctions and demands. The self-
regulation of motivation, affect, and action operates partly through inter-
nal standards and evaluative reactions to one’s own behavior (Bandura,
1991a). The anticipated self-satisfaction gained from fulfilling valued
standards and discontent with substandard performances serve as incen-
tive motivators for action. The motivational effects do not stem from the
standards themselves but from the evaluative self-investment in activi-
ties and positive and negative reactions to one’s performances.
Most theories of self-regulation are founded on a negative feedback
system in which people strive to reduce disparities between their per-
ceived performance and an adopted standard. But self-regulation by neg-
ative discrepancy tells only half the story and not necessarily the more
interesting half. In fact, people are proactive, aspiring organisms. Human
self-regulation relies on discrepancy production as well as on discrepancy
reduction. People motivate and guide their actions through proactive con-
trol by setting themselves challenging goals and then mobilizing their
resources, skills, and effort to fulfill them. After people attain the goal
they have been pursuing, those with a strong sense of efficacy set higher
goals for themselves. Adopting further challenges creates new motivating
discrepancies to be mastered. Self-regulation of motivation and action
thus involves a dual-control process of disequilibrating discrepancy pro-
duction (proactive control) followed by equilibrating discrepancy reduc-
tion (reactive control).
In areas of functioning involving achievement strivings and cultivation
of competencies, the internal standards that are selected as a mark of ade-
quacy are progressively altered as knowledge and skills are acquired and