Page 166 - Microaggressions in Everyday Live Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

140 racial/ethnic microaggressions and racism

subsequent behavior of enslaved persons who attempted to escape from their
slave masters (Thomas & Sillen, 1972).
Racism was thus couched in a language of beliefs that justifi ed discrimi-
natory actions, but provided convenient nonracist rationalizations to oppress,
take advantage of, and deny the humanity of people of color. As research
on racial microaggressions indicates, such beliefs and attitudes continue to
be manifested in the actions of well - intentioned White brothers and sisters
(Sue, Capodilupo, & Holder, 2008; Sue, Bucceri, et al., 2007; Sue, Lin, Torino,
Capodilupo, & Rivera, 2009). Thus, when well - intentioned Whites express
annoyance with these facts by stating “ Why blame me, my parents and grand-
parents didn ’ t own slaves ” or “ Why blame me, I didn ’ t take land away from
American Indians ” they do not realize that they are committing a gross racial
microaggression by denying responsibility for these past and continuing injus-
tices. Yes, it is true that Whites today did not take land from Native Americans,
and yes, it is true that Whites today do not own slaves. They are not responsi-
ble for these past injustices. But they fail to realize one important fact: White
Americans continue, to this present day, to benefit from these past actions and

the current structural arrangements that arose from systems of unfairness!

FROM OLD - FASHIONED RACISM TO MODERN
RACISM: THE MORPHING OF BIGOTRY

Most people recognize racism when it is manifested in overt, conscious, and
deliberate acts of hatred and discrimination directed toward people of color.

Racism has been defined as the individual and institutional expression of the
superiority of one group ’ s cultural heritage (Whites), its arts/crafts, traditions,
language, religion, history, and values over all other groups (non - White) (Sue,

2003). Others have more specifi cally defined it as any attitude, action, institu-
tional structure, or social policy that subordinates groups because of their
color (Jones, 1997; Nelson, 2006).

Old - Fashioned Racism

The term “ old - fashioned racism ” has been used to define its blatant and visible
forms (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000) at three different levels: individual, institu-
tional, and cultural (Jones, 1997).
1. Individual racism is associated with personal acts of racial prejudice and
discrimination that may be manifest in violent hate crimes toward people

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