Page 168 - Microaggressions in Everyday Live Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

142 racial/ethnic microaggressions and racism

eyes, and fair skin) are seen as normal and ideal (Guthrie, 1998; Jones, 1997;
Katz, 1985; Sue & Sue, 2008). Individuals or groups that adhere to these
beliefs/values and/or possess such physical features are allowed easier access
to the rewards of society.
Such a worldview has another equally damaging effect. For example, his-
torical references to “ rugged individualism, ” “ taming the West, ” civilizing
“ heathens, ” “ helping other groups adopt a single - god concept, ” and bringing a
Western way of life to “ less developed ” and “ primitive ” cultures all speak to
the converse of superiority—the inferiority of other groups, cultures, and
societies (Hanna, Talley, & Guindon, 2000).
Physical characteristics such as dark complexion, black hair, and brown
eyes; cultural characteristics such as belief in non - Christian religions (Islam,
Confucianism, polytheism, etc.), collectivism, present - time orientation, and
the importance of shared wealth; and linguistic characteristics such as bilin-
gualism, nonstandard English, speaking with an accent, use of nonverbal and
contextual communications, and reliance on the oral tradition are usually
seen as less desirable by the society (Sue & Sue, 2003, p. 70).

Modern Racism

In his book, The Psychology of Prejudice, Nelson (2006) asks a sarcastic question:
“ Where have all the bigots gone? ” He observes that it was once common for
Whites to openly express racist attitudes and beliefs, advocate for segrega-
tion, and denigrate people of color — especially Black Americans — as morally
and intellectually inferior. Over many decades, however, the old - fashioned
forms of racism that characterized the segregated Southern States diminished
greatly in importance and seemed to have disappeared (Dovidio, Gaertner,
Kawakami, & Hodson, 2002; Jones, 1997; Miller & Garran, 2008; Nelson,
2006). Much of this change has been attributed to the landmark rulings of the
Supreme Court, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Third World Movements
(Sue & Sue, 2008). If one traces the stereotypes of Black Americans over time,
for example, early characterizations of them as superstitious, lazy, and ignorant
have declined dramatically (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1991, 1993).
Many race scholars, however, believe that racism has not disappeared, but
(a) morphed into a highly disguised, invisible, and subtle form that lies outside
the level of conscious awareness, (b) hides in the invisible assumptions and
beliefs of individuals, and (c) is embedded in the policies and structures of
our institutions (Dovidio et al., 2002; McConahay, 1986; Sears, 1988; Sue,

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