Page 192 - Microaggressions in Everyday Live Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

166 gender microaggressions and sexism

female ( “ bitchy ” or being “ butch ” ). Even more disturbing is the fi nding that
both male and female clinicians shared these perceptions!
More recent studies continue to confirm that gender stereotypes of men

and women have changed little over time; men are expected to be logical,
independent, aggressive, and fearless, while women are illogical, passive, fear-
ful, affectionate, conforming, and concerned with domestic affairs (Bergin &
Williams, 1991; Swim & Stangor, 1998). Women continue to be told to “ stay in
your place, ” and not to violate sex - role norms. Such sex - role stereotypes can
(1) have a damaging effect upon task performance (women are not as good as
men in math and science) despite having equal ability to men, (2) contribute
to stereotype threat, and (3) provoke negative thoughts and feelings about the
self (Cadinu, Maass, Rosabianca, & Kiesner, 2005).

Old - Fashioned Sexism: Patriarchy, Power, and Control

In nearly all societies, women have been considered lesser than men, encoun-
tered more social restrictions, and usually considered intellectually, emotion-
ally, and psychologically inferior (Nelson, 2006; Zastrow, 2004). As a result,
patriarchal policies, practices, and structures have granted men power over

women, and provided men with a convenient justification for the subjugation
of women. Sexism is any attitude or behavior of individuals, institutions,
or societal norms based on the belief that men are naturally superior to
women and should dominate them in all spheres of life: political, economic,
and social.
Stereotyping and rigid gender - role beliefs serve as a source of control and
power over women through descriptive and prescriptive means (Fiske, 1993).
Descriptive female stereotypes are the false beliefs about women (emotional,
illogical, sensitive, etc.) that are imposed by a dominant powerful group.
These have the effect of indoctrinating the larger society about how people in a
group think, feel, and behave . It also has the effect of potentially indoctrinating
targets to these beliefs as well. For example, women may come to internalize
and believe in these stereotypes. Prescriptive female stereotypes are believed to
be more damaging and insidious than descriptive ones because they state how
women should think, feel, and behave (Fiske & Stevens, 1993). They represent the
ultimate form of control because they induce conformance to role behaviors
and punish those who violate prescriptive roles. A female worker in a “ hard
hat ” construction site may be punished by male colleagues because she is
breaking from traditional role behaviors and engaging in activities meant

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