Page 270 -

12 Participatory Approaches 269

– Conceptual model design.
– Implementation.
– Calibration and verification.
– Simulation process (might be running a computer simulation model, playing a
game session, etc.).
– Validation.
– Discussion of results.
Involvement of stakeholders in each of the different stages of the modelling
process does not generate the same level of empowerment or learning, even if
we assume that this involvement is sincere. Preliminary synthesis, conceptual
model design, validation and, to some extent, discussion of results are framing
stages; stakeholder involvement at these levels gives power to stakeholders to
orientate the process. In the preliminary synthesis/diagnosis, stakeholders have the
opportunity to play a part in setting the agenda. This is the stage of problem
structuring which is identified as a key one in all participatory processes (Daniell
et al. 2006). Even if the agenda developed with stakeholder involvement might
further evolve, its initialisation generates a strong irreversibility in the process: data
collection, participant’s selection and (partially) modelling choices (architecture,
platform) are related to this agenda and are costly, either directly or through the
necessity of reprogramming. The modelling process is a sequential decision process,
and as shown in theory of sequential decisions, initial decisions are often at the
source of more consequences than envisaged (Henry 1974; Richard and Trometter
2001). Conceptual model design constitutes a landmark in the process. It is the
crystallisation of viewpoints that serve as a reference in further stages. Validation
is the compulsory stage where stakeholders will have the opportunity to check the
effectiveness of the computer model in representing correctly their behaviours and
ways of acting. Discussion of results may also constitute a framing phase, according
to the purpose of the discussion. If dimensions of discussion are to be defined and
model is open to be modified, there is some place for participants to (re-)orientate
the modelling process. Otherwise, if the discussion of results aims to choose from
a few scenarios, for example, the choice is very narrow and might be completely
manipulated. In this regard, it has been shown that for any vote among composite
baskets, it is possible to maintain that one item always selected according to the way
the baskets are constituted (Marengo and Pasquali 2003). A scenario in this case is
a kind of composite basket.
In other stages of a modelling process, the influence of stakeholder involvement
on the overall process is less important. When data collection or calibration and
verification involve participants, stakeholders tend to take the role of informants.
Among the various levels proposed in the classical ladder of participation explained
in the following subsection, these stages deal predominately with consultation. Their
involvement is framed by the format of information which is expected and on the
parts of the model which are to be calibrated or validated. If the process is open to
modification in these frames, the level of participation might be higher but still with
a limited scope.