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12 Participatory Approaches 275

Table 12.1 Categories of participation according to level of heterogeneity embraced (from van
Daalen and Bots 2006)
Model use
Level Model construction Computer model Gaming simulation
1 Individual Knowledge elicitation Model can be executed, Individual can ‘play’
stakeholders involving one or more and individual an actor in a flight
individuals separately, stakeholders are simulator setting (e.g.
depending on the informed of the result Maier and Grössler
modelling method this (e.g. Dudley 2003) 2000;Sterman 1992)
may consist of
interviews about
(perceptions on) a
system or
questionnaires related
to the aspects being
modelled (e.g. Molin
2005)
2 Homogenous Same as 1, but group The use of a model in a Multiplayer gaming
group model building homogenous group simulation can be
includes interaction means that the model conducted; the game is
between stakeholders can be run in a workshop followed by a
(e.g. Castella et al. setting and model results debriefing (e.g. Mayer
2005) are discussed (e.g. van et al. 2005)
Daalen et al. 1998)
3 Heterogeneous Same as 2, but group Same as 2, but results Same as 2, but full
group model building discussed with stakeholder group
interaction between stakeholders with involved (e.g. Étienne
stakeholders with different et al. 2003)
different perceptions/beliefs
perceptions/beliefs
(e.g. Van den Belt
2004)

empowerment are brought to the fore, the potential for framing or controlling the
process is dedicated to the participants. This might induce echoes in power relations
within the group, notably due to training that may be induced.
Van Daalen and Bots have proposed a categorisation of participatory modelling
according to this dimension with three scales: individual involvement, a group
considered as homogeneous and a heterogeneous group (van Daalen and Bots 2006).
Table 12.1 provides examples of each level according to the two processes involved
that were explained in previous subsection.
These three categories are represented in the diagrams below, as expansions of
the relation between A and (M [ R) in the previous subsection. The third category
corresponds to the deep connection mentioned in the first section (Figs. 12.1, 12.2
and 12.3).