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302 PART 4 • STRATEGY EVALUATION

have regarding formulation and/or implementation of that strategy. Thus strategists in a
particular firm must decide for themselves whether the risk of rival firms easily knowing
and exploiting a firm’s strategies is worth the benefit of improved employee and stake-
holder motivation and input. Most executives agree that some strategic information should
remain confidential to top managers, and that steps should be taken to ensure that such
information is not disseminated beyond the inner circle. For a firm that you may own or
manage, would you advocate openness or secrecy in regard to strategies being formulated
and implemented?
There are certainly good reasons to keep the strategy process and strategies them-
selves visible and open rather than hidden and secret. There are also good reasons to keep
strategies hidden from all but top-level executives. Strategists must decide for themselves
what is best for their firms. This text comes down largely on the side of being visible and
open, but certainly this may not be best for all strategists and all firms. As pointed out in
Chapter 1, Sun Tzu argued that all war is based on deception and that the best maneuvers
are those not easily predicted by rivals. Business and war are analogous.
Some reasons to be completely open with the strategy process and resultant decisions
are these:
1. Managers, employees, and other stakeholders can readily contribute to the process.
They often have excellent ideas. Secrecy would forgo many excellent ideas.
2. Investors, creditors, and other stakeholders have greater basis for supporting a firm
when they know what the firm is doing and where the firm is going.
3. Visibility promotes democracy, whereas secrecy promotes autocracy. Domestic
firms and most foreign firms prefer democracy over autocracy as a management
style.
4. Participation and openness enhance understanding, commitment, and
communication within the firm.
Reasons why some firms prefer to conduct strategic planning in secret and keep
strategies hidden from all but the highest-level executives are as follows:
1. Free dissemination of a firm’s strategies may easily translate into competitive
intelligence for rival firms who could exploit the firm given that information.
2. Secrecy limits criticism, second guessing, and hindsight.
3. Participants in a visible strategy process become more attractive to rival firms
who may lure them away.
4. Secrecy limits rival firms from imitating or duplicating the firm’s strategies
and undermining the firm.

The obvious benefits of the visible versus hidden extremes suggest that a working
balance must be sought between the apparent contradictions. Parnell says that in a perfect
world all key individuals both inside and outside the firm should be involved in strategic
planning, but in practice particularly sensitive and confidential information should always
remain strictly confidential to top managers. 17 This balancing act is difficult but essential
for survival of the firm.

The Top-Down or Bottom-Up Approach
Proponents of the top-down approach contend that top executives are the only persons in
the firm with the collective experience, acumen, and fiduciary responsibility to make key
strategy decisions. In contrast, bottom-up advocates argue that lower- and middle-level
managers and employees who will be implementing the strategies need to be actively
involved in the process of formulating the strategies to ensure their support and commit-
ment. Recent strategy research and this textbook emphasize the bottom-up approach, but
earlier work by Schendel and Hofer stressed the need for firms to rely on perceptions of
their top managers in strategic planning. 18 Strategists must reach a working balance of the
two approaches in a manner deemed best for their firms at a particular time, while
cognizant of the fact that current research supports the bottom-up approach, at least among
U.S. firms. Increased education and diversity of the workforce at all levels are reasons why