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THE CNN EFFECT AND WAR
to a number of critiques, it nonetheless points to the competitive
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nature of policy formulation.
Although formulation can be separated from implementation in an
idealized model, they are difficult to divide in practice because policy is
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Governments have a
often reformulated during implementation.
number of tools at their disposal to implement foreign policies, includ-
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ing diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military instruments. The use
of military force in the context of foreign policy was characterized by
Clausewitz as a rational continuation of political discourse by other
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means. Under this logic, war is a useful tool of policy if the goals are
considered important and the level of commitment is high. But in many
cases, the option of force is only a potential factor held in reserve and is
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just as effective as its actual use, serving as a vital tool of diplomacy.
Policy Process versus Substance
A second way in which foreign policy can be segmented involves
separating the processes of policymaking from its substance. The
processes of foreign policy relate largely to specific activities involved in
formulation and implementation. For example, information gathering,
analyzing, negotiating, and decision-making are all activities that go
toward the formulation process. Once these activities are completed,
then the policy’s substance emerges, at least until it is reformulated.
The decision(s) reached during formulation, based on the information
gathered, analysis conducted, and negotiation completed, constitute
the policy substance. While the processes of foreign policy–making can
be distinguished from its substance during the policy formulation phase,
they are more difficult to separate during implementation, as the policy’s
substance may be identical to its implementation. For example, a policy
of military intervention through aerial bombing will involve aerial
bombing, in terms of implementation. In this regard, the third distinc-
tion between different aspects of policy substance is particularly useful.
Strategic versus Tactical Aspects of Policy
Policy substance can be differentiated into three aspects in the context
of a third-party military intervention. The first relates to the goals or
objectives of the policy and will be referred to as strategic policy. For
example, a policy might seek to end a civil war or a humanitarian
disaster. This aspect can be determined by answering the question
“What end(s) is the policy trying to accomplish?”
The second aspect of a foreign policy, which will be referred to as
tactical policy A, deals with implementation. It answers the question
“What must the parties on the ground do to reach the end(s) of the