Page 191 - The ISA Handbook in Contemporary Sociology

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system of rivalry. Sport may also be a mode instance, on the hundreds of American
of resistance to power and a means of acting radio stations devoted to sport (talk radio) –
on and modifying practices (Howell, et al., constitutes a space where individuals who
2002). Such resistance to hegemony here think of themselves as apolitical or unable to
forms part of a logic of conflict, principally express their political opinions freely (men,
of class conflict. Starting from the perspec- whites, conservative Republicans, members
tive of a number of different problematics, of the middle and lower social classes; see
studies in French inspired by the work of Goldberg, 1998) can express very political
Pierre Bourdieu (1980) have dealt with a vari- points indeed. Even in football (soccer),
ety of resistance movements to the prevailing often considered the most remarkable enter-
sports orthodoxy, which are frequently sym- prise of indoctrination and creation of fanati-
bolized by traditional competitions promoted cism in sport, uses are more diverse. Indeed,
by the major international organizations (fed- football has been the object of a plethora of
erations, CIO, FIFA, etc.) as being the studies, particularly by European researchers,
expressions of class conflict (Pociello, 1981). because of its unrivalled global reach, its
Anti-competitions or newly invented forms economic dimension, its impact through the
of competition – mass road running, mass media and the hyper-abundance of ‘chit-
sporting events, alternative competitions and chat’ that it generates. Football can serve as a
sports, etc. – have often been backed by ‘metaphor for life in society’ (Bromberger
groups with greater cultural capital, which et al., 1995). It is sport in general, however,
are opposed to sports organizations that they that plays this role. Eco (1985) discerns an
consider highly conservative. ambiguity in modern competitions. On the
Another argument used to show that com- one hand, they serve as a pretext for small
petition cannot be analyzed uniformly is the talk and gossip which have the effect of belit-
claim that there are multiple forms and tling individuals. For, even if sport provides a
diverse processes of consumption which reliable resource for social interaction, chat-
must be considered. Indeed, the success of ter about sport is shallow both conceptually
competitive sport goes hand-in-hand with a and in terms of human relations. On the other
vast range of commentaries: journalists, fans, hand, given the extreme complexity of soci-
athletes, TV spectators, and even sociolo- ety and that the possibility of understanding
gists, all participate in this process of making it is beyond the reach of (most) individuals,
sense of competitive sport. One tends prima- talk about sporting performances and compe-
rily to retain scores and images, all too often titions has become a metaphor for life in
neglecting the discourses associated with society. In the process, this kind of talk
them. Competitive sports have often been impoverishes social debate and displaces
approached as warlike contests, which political involvement. A real anxiety there-
promote nationalism and masculine hege- fore exists about such mass culture. This
mony (Brohm, 1993). The metaphor of war should not, however, stop us from noting that
certainly lends itself to the construction of the chit-chat engendered by sports competi-
narrative, but sports commentary does not tions nonetheless facilitates the expression of
discuss this aspect exclusively. The narra- a variety of social values (Ohl, 2000a). While
tives of sport also provide opportunities to the conditions of everyday life are not con-
recount human cooperation and conflict in ducive to such clearly defined competitions
the context of competitive contests. as those enacted in sport, sporting competi-
Moreover, texts and commentaries on tions and their rituals are undeniably symbol-
sports are hardly idle chatter. The putatively ically efficient (Birrell, 1981), and contribute
apolitical nature of sports conceals concepts to making sense of daily life by supplying
that are politically charged (Defrance, 2000) models of identification. Public interest is
and the chatter – such as that heard, for stimulated even more since the narratives of