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SOCIAL DIFFERENCE IN SPORT 157

Cooperation is rarely used as a keyword; consumers or voters, the monopoly which
nevertheless it is present in studies, particu- sports organizations enjoy over major com-
larly those that focus on sports organizations. petitions affords them considerable autonomy
In a rather naïve and idealistic way, sport is within their environment. Nevertheless, due
seen as representing an ideal carrier of coop- to their high degree of international interde-
eration and friendship between peoples. In pendence, sports organizations have little
fact, it presupposes ‘external’ cooperation local or national autonomy: even locally,
between competitors – at least they must sports organizations enforce international
agree on the rules or agree to discuss them – rules. In addition, the involvement of individ-
and often ‘internal’ cooperation as well. uals in sports, which is usually voluntary,
In team sports, winning is predicated on goes hand in hand with processes of social-
cooperation among the members of a given ization which legitmate acculturation to the
team. Furthermore, in individual sports as values of various sports subcultures, and thus
well, it often involves the mobilization of a foster cooperation among participants
complex group of professionals (coaches, fit- (Coakley, 2003). In most institutionalized
ness and psychological trainers, doctors, phys- sport, competitions result in few conflicts
iotherapists, etc.) to assist in the production over the basic rules of engagement. This fact
of the performance. differentiates institutional competitive sport
Aside from G. Lüschen (1970), few from traditional games whose rules fluctuate
authors have attempted to analyze the notions much more, from sports, which are not
of competition, cooperation and conflict organized, and from new practices whose
directly in the sociology of sport. For definitions are more a matter for negotiation.
Lüschen, competition is a safeguard against Despite this, competitive sport does take a
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conflict, inasmuch as the space and time of variety of forms. There are, of course, those
competition are stable and well-defined. major media events, in which competition is
Moreover, competition is very predictable a contest between people or groups repre-
and structured, with specific rules and a judge senting larger social communities (a city,
whose authority is recognized by competitors region, or nation). These competitions differ
on both sides. This is not necessarily the case from more traditional contests in terms of the
with conflict, whose outcomes are far more attention given to measurement and to
uncertain. For analogous reasons, N. Elias records (Guttman, 1978). Competition may
and E. Dunning (1986) prefer to speak of also be ‘internal’, played out among mem-
‘tension’rather than ‘conflict’. As a result, the bers of the same team to obtain a leadership
adjustments made to cooperative undertak- position, or to become the player with the
ings and to the regulation of conflicts – both most recognition. Research into the effects of
of which allow social organizations to come ‘internal’ competition has provided no clear-cut
to agreement about the terms of future inter- results (Lüschen, 1970). It can be beneficial:
actions – are much less varied within sporting by increasing pressure on players, it chal-
organizations than elsewhere. lenges them to improve their performance.
Of course, the history of sport is dotted But it can also be harmful, as in instances
with numerous conflicts, mishaps, incidents where it destroys trust among team members
of violence and situations of crisis, but only and prevents them from cooperating.
rarely have these modified the foundations of Imagine, for example, the members of a team
any particular game. If it is clear that sport of mountain climbers who distrust each other
today is more dependent on the economy and completely, or who are competing against
on the media than at any time in the past, it is each other to reach the summit.
equally true that, compared to other social In many sports, competitive success pre-
organizations which are more vulnerable to supposes cooperation, and there have been
economic competition and to the choices of numerous inquiries with utilitarian goals.