Page 22 - Advances in bioenergy the sustainability challenge

Figure 10.1 Calculated conversion profiles for low temperature Fischer–Tropsch
(LTFT) operation for cobalt and iron catalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref 27.
Copyright 2002, Elsevier.

Figure 10.2 Typical deactivation profile for cobalt catalysts during Fischer–Tropsch
synthesis. Reproduced with permission from Ref 36. Copyright 1997, Elsevier.

Figure 10.3 CO reaction rate versus time on stream with H S addition. Fischer–
2
Tropsch synthesis conditions were 210°C, 20 bar pressure, H /CO = 2.1, and a 12 wt%
2
Co/0.3 wt% Re/NiAl O catalyst. Reproduced with permission from Ref 76. Copyright
2 4
2011, Elsevier.

Figure 10.4 Site time yield with increasing alkali impurity loading at 50% CO
conversion with a γ-alumina supported 20 wt% Co, 0.5 wt% Re catalyst. Impurity
loading (ppm) actually denotes the weight fraction of impurities in the sample.

Reproduced with permission from Ref 80. Copyright 2002, Springer.
Figure 10.5 A schematic of key components in a Fischer–Tropsch-biomass to liquid
fuel (FT-BTL) plant including a gas turbine (combined cycle) for power generation.

Reproduced with permission from Ref 88 Copyright 2010, Elsevier.

Figure 10.6 An example of a possible process layout for a Fischer–Tropsch-biomass
to liquid fuel (FT-BTL) process including electricity and heat production from the tail
gas. Reproduced from Ref 95 Copyright 2005, European Commission.

Figure 10.7 Scale dependency of Fischer–Tropsch (FT) fuel production costs.
4000 MW biomass input equals 34,000 bbld FT products. Reproduced from Ref 98
Copyright 2007, ECN.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Cycle for energy crops biomass-to-energy cycle.

Figure 11.2 Biomass to bioenergy route for agricultural residues.

Figure 11.3 Targets for minimum removal rates of inorganics after the leaching
pretreatment—Part A.

Figure 11.4 Targets for minimum removal rates of inorganics after the leaching
pretreatment—Part B.

Figure 11.5 Main steps of the pre-pyrolysis/low temperature gasification rretreatment
process. 46

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Volumes for the Renewable Fuels Standards of the US Energy
17
Independence and Security Act, 2007. Cellulosic biofuel = renewable fuels produced
from cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin (must meet a 60% + greenhouse gas (GG)
reduction threshold compared to fossil fuels); Biomass-based diesel = biodiesel or