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Architecture Enters the Doordan, D. P. (2001). Twentieth-century architecture. Upper Saddle
Twenty-firstCentury River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Harry N. Abrams.
Fletcher,B. (1996). A history of architecture (Rev. ed.). Oxford, UK, and
Contemporary architectural trends continue to respond Boston: Architectural Press.
to the issues of culture and technology. Like many lead- Grodecki, L. (1977). Gothic architecture. ( I. M. Paris,Trans.). New York:
Harry N. Abrams.
ing architects, Rem Koolhaas has questioned societal
Kostof, S. (1995). A history of architecture (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford
beliefs and institutions in his Netherlands Dance Theater University Press.
(1987),The Hague. Innovative solutions for structure and Krautheimer, R. (1986). Early Christian and Byzantine architecture.
Harmondsworth, UK, and Baltimore, MD: Penguin.
interior illumination aided the design of Norman Foster Kruft, H.-W. (1994). A history of architectural theory from Vitruvius to the
Associates giant Hong Kong Bank (1986) in Hong present (R. Taylor, Trans.). London: Zwemmer; New York: Princeton
Architectural Press.
Kong, China. Tensile membrane structure, such as the
Lloyd, S., Müller, H. W., & Martin, R. (1974). Ancient architecture:
Denver (Colorado) International Airport (1994) by C.W. Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete, Greece. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Fentress, J. H. Bradburn & Associates, allows large spaces MacDonald, W. (1982/1986). The architecture of the Roman Empire
(Rev. ed., 2 vols.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
to be enclosed. Digitized imaging software facilitated the Mainstone, R. (1998). Developments in structural form. Oxford, UK, and
titanium-clad design of Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Boston: Architectural Press.
Mark, R. (Ed.). (1993). Architectural technology up to the Scientific Rev-
Museum (1997) in Bilbao, Spain.
olution:The art and structure of large-scale buildings. Cambridge, MA:
In the growing trend of “green” or ecologically sus- MIT Press.
tainable design, designers conserve materials and energy, Middleton, R., & Watkin, D. (1987). Neoclassical and 19th century archi-
tecture. (Rev. ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams.
provide occupants with abundant fresh air and natural Moffett, M., Fazio, M., & Wodehouse, L. Buildings across time: An intro-
light, and carefully manage waste.Among the best-known duction to world architecture. London: McGraw-Hill.
Oliver, P. (Ed.). (1997). Encyclopedia of vernacular architecture of the
examples is William McDonough & Associates Offices
world (3 vols.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
for Gap, Inc. (1997) in San Bruno, California, with its Placzek, A. K., (Ed.). (1982). Macmillan encyclopedia of architects (4
careful siting, vegetated roof, and other “green” elements. vols.). New York: Macmillan.
Raeburn, M. (Ed.). (1988). Architecture of the Western World. Leicester,
Kenneth Yeang’s Menara Mesiniaga Building (1991) in UK: Popular Press.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, connects sustainable design Salvadori, M., & Heller, R. (1986). Structure in architecture. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
with the local traditions of Southeast Asia.
Trachtenberg, M., & Hyman, I. (2002). Architecture from prehistory to
A third trend is the revival in vernacular traditions that postmodernity (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
has been building since at least Hassan Fathy’s design for Turner, J. (Ed.). (1959–1987). Encyclopedia of world art (16 vols.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
the Village of New Gourna (1945–1948) at Luxor,
Egypt. In the United States vernacularism has inspired the
pedestrian-friendly “new urbanism” movement publicized
by the design of Seaside, Florida (begun 1981), by
Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk. Aristotle
(384–322 bce)
David M. Breiner
Greek philosopher and writer

Further Reading ristotle was one of the most important and prolific
Benevolo, L. (1978). The architecture of the Renaissance (2 vols.). Aof all ancient philosophers. Born in the town of
(J. Landry,Trans). Boulder, CO: Westview. Stageira in northern Greece, Aristotle had an immediate
Blunt, A. (Ed.). (1988). Baroque and Rococo architecture and decoration.
Hertfordshire, UK: Wordsworth Editions. environment of intellectual inquiry. His father, Nico-
Conant, K. J. (1987). Carolingian and Romanesque architecture: 800– machus, was physician at the court of Macedonian King
1200. Baltimore, MD: Penguin.
Curtis, J. W. R. (1996). Modern architecture since 1900 (3rd ed.). Amyntas II. At the age of eighteen Aristotle traveled to
Oxford, UK: Phaidon. Athens to study at the Academy of the Greek philosopher