Page 108 - Encyclopedia Of World History Vol III

horticultural societies 927

These constraints have important implications with re- cases group and clan membership is determined by trac-
gard to village size and distribution, division of labor, ing descent through the female line. Matrilineal descent
social organization, and political complexity. recognizes that the members of the clan are all related
Villages tend to be small, numbering fewer than two through their mothers to a real or mythical ancestress
hundred people, and they are often widely dispersed who lived sometime in the remote past. Maintaining a
across the landscape. In some regions the entire village is core of related women requires that women stay in their
relocated frequently. One reason is the need to continu- natal village and that their husbands move to live with
ously plant new gardens. For example, a village of two them. This creates a residence pattern that anthropolo-
hundred people composed of thirty families will consume gists call matrilocal. In some cases, men are so peripheral
about thirty hectares of forest for their gardens (that is, to the group that they live in a separate men’s house and
one hectare per family). Gardens remain productive for not in the house of their wife.
only four to five years, so every five years they must clear Because horticultural societies have relatively few
an additional thirty hectares. Eventually the time it takes members, there is usually little need for formal leader-
to walk to the garden becomes a high cost to pay. In addi- ship; however, as the size off the group increases, it is
tion, wild animals in the vicinity of a village rapidly common for one individual to emerge as the village
decline due to hunting pressure and hunters must venture leader or headman. Even though related women are the
farther and farther from the village. Finally, after the pole core around which the domestic group is formed, men
and thatch houses in which villagers live become infested still fulfill the major leadership roles, especially as these
with vermin, their inhabitants are compelled to abandon relate to external relations. Such leaders tend to rule by
them and build new ones. Large spacing between villages example and through consensus. Because they lack the
promotes better access to wild game, and villages are typ- authority to enforce their will, they must exhort their fel-
ically moved a relatively short distance to facilitate the low villagers to recognize the wisdom of their ideas and
recycling of materials from the old village (for example, to agree to follow their lead.
house posts) and to allow villagers to continue to harvest A major issue that confronts village leaders is the deci-
foods from the old gardens, especially fruits. sion to move the village.This decision is complicated by
There tends to be a strong gender division of labor the fact that every family has its own needs and goals.
among horticultural groups. Men clear and burn the new For example, one family may have just cleared a new gar-
gardens, contribute to some of the more tedious tasks den so would prefer to stay, while others are ready to
(such as weeding), and are responsible for hunting and abandon old gardens and move on. Moreover, as a vil-
fishing. Women provide a complementary contribution lage grows in size through the birth of new members
to the economy.They often plant and tend the fields, har- there will come a point at which the group must fission
vest foods for daily consumption, prepare the meals, and into separate villages in order to maintain their standard
oversee basic domestic activities. Child care tends to of living. Fissioning is never an easy task and involves
restrict their activities to the vicinity of the village.There conflicting allegiances to family, friends, and relations
is often substantial leisure time, and domestic activities through marriage. Nevertheless, because a horticultural
are carried out at a slow pace and in a social context. economy can support only a limited number of people in
Even during repetitious tasks, such as weeding the gar- one village, groups must eventually split up to maintain
den or preparing meals, the activities involve several peo- an acceptable population density.
ple who chat and gossip. Individual villages are not, however, isolated units.
Because men are often away from the village on hunt- Relations must be maintained with other villages to
ing and fishing expeditions, horticultural societies tend to obtain spouses and mitigate risks, and these intervillage
be organized around a core of related females. In such alliances are often sealed through marriages. Although