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178 Biofuels for a More Sustainable Future

is implemented, to its gross domestic product (GDP) in the same year was
applied (Otsuka, 2011) (Eq. 6.2).
According to the International Monterey Fund (2018) and Global Foot-
print Network (2018) and, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Viet Nam,
as of 2014, were $186 billion and 160 million gha, respectively.

EF 2014 160:3 10 6 4 1
α ¼ ¼ 9 ¼ 8:62 10 gha$ (6.2)
GDP 2014 185:9 10
Since a “healthy” individual can contribute to a country’s economy dur-
ing that person’s lifetime, the number of years lost due to death and disability
means the noneconomic-contributing period of that person. Therefore the
monetary value of DALY per person was computed by multiplying the value
by GDP per capita (β) in the same year (Dalal and Svanstr€om, 2015). There-
fore the conversion factor β was set to $2343 based on GPD per capita of
Viet Nam in 2017 (The World Bank Group, 2018).
With efforts to develop a worldwide database on the value of ecosystem
services, the Foundation of Sustainable Development collected and summa-
rized various studies related to monetary valuation of ecosystem services (van
der Ploeg et al., 2010). According to the database, monetary values of coral
reefs and mangroves in Viet Nam with different services, including recrea-
tion, food, raw materials, medical, gene pool, and nursery, varied from
1
$0.165ha 1 year 1 to $2363.8ha 1 year . Thus the conversion factor γ
was estimated as average monetary values of ecosystem services in Viet
1 1
Nam. γ ¼$526.417ha year .

4 Life cycle inventory (LCI)
4.1 Determination of exhaust gas composition
Generally, the effects of biodiesel and its blends on engine performance and
emissions vary due to the diversity of, for instance, the origins of biodiesel
including oil seeds and climate conditions where the oilseeds grow, and the
types of engines and their working conditions (Atabani et al., 2013; No,
2011). In fact, available information on exhaust gases from vehicles using
biodiesel and combustion gases of Pongamia, and Hibiscus and Vernicia bio-
diesels are limited and not evident enough for a specific estimation. There-
fore to determine the difference between exhaust gases of petrodiesel and
biodiesel blends, this study combined a regression model for predicting
the percent change in exhaust emissions based on the concentration of bio-
diesel in the blend developed by United States Environmental Protection