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Introduction to Polymers 17

TABLE 1.11 (continued)
Major Chemical Producers Based on (Net) Sales (>2,500 Million Dollars; in
Millions of U.S. Dollars; 2008)
Yara (Norway) 15,800 LG Chem (S. Korea) 13,600
Reliance Industries (India) 12,200 Braskem (Brazil) 9,800
Sasol (South Africa) 8,300 National Petrochemical Co. (Iran) 7,800
Israel Chemicals (Israel) 6,900

* 2007 values.
Source: C & EN.

including federal and state laws and initiatives, industrial consciousness, reality, international efforts,
individual actions, and so on. Chemistry, chemists, and the chemical industry have been directing much
effort in this direction for over several decades with this effort magnified over the past several years.

This textbook highlights some of these efforts in polymers. Here a number of terms related to these
efforts will be introduced. While these terms are described individually, the environmental activity is
a matrix of actions and activities, each one dependent on others to be successful. Many of these studies
and assessments are governed somewhat by procedures described by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). (More about ISO can be found on the web and in Appendix H.)
Environmental impact assessment—An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is simply an
assessment of the possible impact that a project or material may have on the natural environment.
This possible impact may be positive or negative, and often is a combination of positive and nega-
tive impacts. The intension of such EIAs is to identify where changes can and should be made and
to make us aware of these instances. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)
describes such impact assessments as a process for “identifying, predicting, evaluating and miti-
gating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major
decisions being taken and commitments made.” (Petts, J. (Ed.) (1999): Handbook of Environmental
Impact Assessment, Vols. 1 and 2, Blackwell, Oxford.) The need and specifications for EIAs depends

on the particular country. For the United States it originated as part of the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1970. States may also have other requirements.
Ecological footprint—The ecological footprint is a measure of our demand on the Earth’s eco-
systems. It includes our demand on both natural resources and on the ability for these resources to
be regenerated. In the past, the methods and items to be measured varied widely, often based on
factors suiting the particular sector making the footprint assessment. Today, more homogeneous
standards are emerging. It is intended to refl ect a measure of the land, fresh water, and ocean area
required to produce, for instance, a product. Such footprints are often calculated to refl ect other
average measures. One such measure is a per capita ecological footprint that compares consumption
and lifestyles with the natural ability to provide this consumption.
Life cycle assessment—A life cycle assessment (LCA) investigates and valuates the environmental
impact of a product or service. It is also referred to as an ecobalance analysis, cradle-to-grave analysis,
and life cycle analysis. Such assessments are intended to measure the effects of the cascade of tech-
nologies related to products and services. Here we will restrict our comments to products. “Life cycle”
can refer to a holistic assessment of raw material used in the production of a product, including energy
consumption for procurement and transport of the material, manufacture, distribution, use, and fi nally
disposal, including recycling, and if possible, environmental costs. Often guesses and averages are
included in these studies. Thus, the cost of transportation could include some proportion of the truck
or train construction, road or rail construction, and the deterioration and repair of the same.
According to ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, an LCA contains four distinct phases. These phases

are goal and scope, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation of the first three phases. In

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