Page 54 - Communication and the Evolution of Society

31 What Is Universal Pragmatics?

of objects to which it can be applied in true sentences. Under
these premises one can explicate the meaning of expressions that
appear in propositional sentences. I do not see, however, why
semantic theory should monopolistically single out the represen-
tational function of language and ignore the specific meanings
that language develops in its expressive and interpersonal func-
tions.
These preliminary reflections are intended merely to support
the conjecture that semantic theory cannot be successfully de-
veloped as a unified theory. But if it is heterogeneously composed,
no objection to the methodological separation of the analysis of
sentence structures from that of utterance structures can be in-
ferred from the difficulties of demarcating semantics from prag-
matics (difficulties that are equally present in demarcating seman-
tics from syntax). The analysis of general structures of speech
can indeed begin with general sentence structures. However, it is
directed to formal properties of sentences only from the perspec-
tive of the possibility of ws7ng sentences as elements of speech,
that is, for representational, expressive, and interpersonal func-
tions. Universal pragmatics too can be understood as semantic
analysis. But it is distinguished from other theories of meaning
in that the meanings of linguistic expressions are relevant only
insofar as they contribute to speech acts that satisfy the validity
claims of truth, truthfulness, and normative rightness. On the
other hand, universal pragmatics is distinguished from empirical
pragmatics, e.g., sociolinguistics, in that the meaning of linguistic
expressions comes under consideration only insofar as it is de-
termined by formal properties of speech situations in general, and
not by particular situations of use.
I would like now to sum up the different levels of analysis and
corresponding object domains of semiotics.

a. Sentences versus Utterances. If we start with concrete speech ac-
tions embedded in specific contexts and then disregard all aspects that
these utterances owe to their pragmatic functions, we are left with
linguistic expressions. Whereas the elementary unit of speech is the
speech act, the elementary unit of language is the sentence. The de-
marcation is obtained by attending to conditions of validity—a gram-
matically well-formed sentence satisfies the claim to comprehensibility;