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126 Communication, Commerce and Power

20 Executive Order No.l2046 (1978), 'Transfer of Telecommunications
Functions', Sections 2-401, 2-404, and 2-410 respectively.
21 Ibid., Section 2-404.
22 The State Department's Bureau of International Communications and
Information Policy (ICIP) coordinates and leads US delegations at
international conferences following consultations with other agencies
and relevant private sector interests. When other departments or agen-
cies represent the United States at international meetings, it must be
done with the consent of the State Department. See Department of
Commerce, 'Long-Range Goals in International Telecommunications
and Information,' p. 73. According to the head of the ICIP in the
mid-l980s, Diana Dougan,

The process by which the US government develops the positions it
takes at international conferences is long, complex, and arduous
because of the primacy we place on the private sector as well as the
diverse expertise and perspectives of the numerous US Government
agencies which contribute to our policy process - Diana Lady Dougan,
'The US and the Caribbean: Partners in Communication'. Address to
the Caribbean Seminar on Space WARC and the Transborder Use of
US Domestic Satellites. Montego Bay, 2 October 1984 (Washington
DC: US State Department, 1984), p. 2.

The ICIP is responsible for identifying 'key international communica-
tions and information policy issues'; incorporating 'foreign policy con-
siderations into United States positions'; bringing 'these issues to
decision by coordinating a United States position'; and promoting
'these positions internationally'. US Department of State, 'Bureau of
International Communications and Information Policy' (Department of
State Publication 9860: March 1991).
23 Among other things, Executive Order 12188, issued in 1979, assigns to
the USTR the task of being the President's 'principal advisor ... on
international trade policy.'
24 See 'US Development Communications Assistance Programs' and
'Summary Excerpts SIG Report to NSC,' Chronicle of International
Communication, V (9) (November 1984).
25 Stoil, 'The Executive Branch and International Telecommunications
Policy,' p. 92.
26 Ibid., pp. 92-4.
27 Ibid., pp. 94-5.
28 Also, AT&T sent one delegate, as did Motorola, Rockwell Interna-
tional, Satellite Business Systems, and Western Union.
29 Larry Martinez, Communication Satellites: Power Politics in Space
(Dedham, Mass.: Artech House, 1985) pp. 126--7.
30 In his study of the WARC-79 preparations, Stoil contrasts these rela-
tively sophisticated efforts with an unnamed 'educational association'
which advocated the need for a quasi-DBS system to service the needs of
educators in both developed and less developed countries. This kind of
relatively vague request for more spectrum - rather than a detailed