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DBS and the Structure of US Policy Making 127

'action plan' - was doomed to fail, especially in the absence of support
from a powerful proponent in the White House. Stoil, 'The Executive
Branch and International Telecommunications Policy,' p. 99.
31 Martinez, Communication Satellites, pp. 126-30.
32 Morris H. Crawford, 'The US Mobilizes for W ARC - but Bickers over
Political Aims,' Transnational Data Report, V (6) (September 1982) 313.
33 Ibid., pp. 313-16.
34 William J. Drake and Kalypso Nicolaidis, 'Ideas, Interests, and Institu-
tionalization: 'Trade in Services' and the Uruguay Round,' in Interna-
tional Organization, 46 (1) (Winter 1992) 48.
35 The data-processing sales of the world's twenty largest computer com-
panies totalled over $31 billion in 1979, and US companies held a 77.6%
share of this total. Also in 1979, 800/o of the data base information used
in the world originated in the United States. Joan Edelman Spero,
'Information: The Policy Void,' Foreign Policy, 48 (Fall 1982) 145-6.
From 1986 to 1992, total exports of database services increased from
$124 billion to $592 billion, while imports rose from $23 billion to $85
billion over these same years. From US Government, Survey of Current
Business (September 1993) Table 2, p. 122.
36 On the role played by American Express executives during the formative
stages of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement, see Linda
McQuaig, The Quick and the Dead, Brian Mulroney, Big Business and
the Seduction of Canada (Toronto: Viking, 1991).
37 Methods applied by nation states to control or monitor transborder
information flows included the imposition of legal restrictions to closed
information systems; requirements that data processing be conducted in
host countries; restricted licensing of the operation of or access to
particular transmission media; tariffs and taxes placed on telecommu-
nication network use; and many others. The United States applied a
number of its own restrictions to information flows - such as the items
on a list generated by the Department of Defense of banned technology
exports - despite its ongoing promotion of free flow principles. See
Colleen Roach, 'The US Position on the New World Information and
Communication Order,' Journal of Communication, 37 (4) (Fall 1987).
38 Spero, 'Information: The Policy Void,' p. 140 (emphases added).
39 TNC organizations involved in this effort included the International
Chamber of Commerce which, in 1981, endorsed the inclusion of ser-
vices in the GATT negotiations; the US Council for International Busi-
ness whose Committee on Transborder Data Flow was established in
1979, and whose Committee on International Telecommunications was
established one year later; and the International Trade and Investment
Task Force of the Business Roundtable, founded in 1972. Other sig-
nificant TNC organizations are listed in Karl P. Sauvant, International
Transactions in Services: The Politics of Transborder Data Flows
(Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1986) pp. 194--9.
40 Spero, 'Information: The Policy Void,' p. 155.
41 Also see testimony of William J. Hitsman, Director of the Department
of Defense Communications Agency, in United States Congress. Senate.
Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Subcommittee