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Contents xv

4.3.3 Vanishing points ............................ 224
4.3.4 Application: Rectangle detection .................... 226
4.4 Additional reading ............................... 227
4.5 Exercises .................................... 228

5 Segmentation 235
5.1 Active contours ................................. 237
5.1.1 Snakes ................................. 238
5.1.2 Dynamic snakes and CONDENSATION ................ 243
5.1.3 Scissors ................................. 246
5.1.4 Level Sets ................................ 248
5.1.5 Application: Contour tracking and rotoscoping ............ 249
5.2 Split and merge ................................. 250
5.2.1 Watershed ................................ 251
5.2.2 Region splitting (divisive clustering) .................. 251
5.2.3 Region merging (agglomerative clustering) .............. 251
5.2.4 Graph-based segmentation ....................... 252
5.2.5 Probabilistic aggregation ........................ 253
5.3 Mean shift and mode finding .......................... 254
5.3.1 K-means and mixtures of Gaussians .................. 256
5.3.2 Mean shift ............................... 257
5.4 Normalized cuts ................................. 260
5.5 Graph cuts and energy-based methods ..................... 264
5.5.1 Application: Medical image segmentation ............... 268
5.6 Additional reading ............................... 268
5.7 Exercises .................................... 270

6 Feature-based alignment 273
6.1 2D and 3D feature-based alignment ...................... 275
6.1.1 2D alignment using least squares .................... 275
6.1.2 Application: Panography ........................ 277
6.1.3 Iterative algorithms ........................... 278
6.1.4 Robust least squares and RANSAC .................. 281
6.1.5 3D alignment .............................. 283
6.2 Pose estimation ................................. 284
6.2.1 Linear algorithms ............................ 284
6.2.2 Iterative algorithms ........................... 286
6.2.3 Application: Augmented reality .................... 287
6.3 Geometric intrinsic calibration ......................... 288
6.3.1 Calibration patterns ........................... 289
6.3.2 Vanishing points ............................ 290
6.3.3 Application: Single view metrology .................. 292
6.3.4 Rotational motion ........................... 293
6.3.5 Radial distortion ............................ 295
6.4 Additional reading ............................... 296
6.5 Exercises .................................... 296