Page 47 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

2. INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL DISCRIMINATION
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frequently recognize that their group is discriminated against but tend to
deny the same level of personal experience with discrimination (Crosby,
1984). This denial of personal discrimination may be functional; viewing
oneself as a victim can lower one's self-esteem, lead to self-blame, and
threaten one's sense of control (Crocker & Major, 1994). Denying discrim­
ination, therefore, may help targets maintain a positive self-concept. In
addition, targets who complain about being victims of discrimination are
disliked and highly reprimanded (Kaiser & Miller, 2001), thereby reinforc­
ing underestimation strategies.
Alternatively, when targets feel particularly vulnerable to discrimina­
tion but still feel able to exert some control, they become hypervigilant
and may overestimate the amount of discrimination directed toward them
(e.g., Hebl, Foster, Mannix, & Dovidio, 2002). To the extent that minority
group members are sensitive to signs of rejection, dislike, or discrimina­
tion, they may weigh the negative, subtle signals more heavily than the
positive overt signals (Vorauer & Kumhyr, 2001).
Given that individuals are able in some cases to identify themselves as
victims of discrimination, the strategies that they use to deal with their
potential victimization also determine interpersonal and interactional out­
comes. Through concealment, Goffman (1963) observed, stigmatized in­
dividuals can avoid many negative outcomes by attempting to "pass," or
appear nonstigmatized. However, a preoccupation with concealment leads
to impaired judgments and behaviors and to long-term health risks (Cole,
Kemeny, Taylor, & Visscher, 1996).
Another strategy involves acknowledgment, the overt mentioning or
disclosing of one's stigma to others (e.g., Hebl & Kleck, 2002). There may
be cases in which the stigma is not able to be concealed and is the primary
focus of the interaction. In this case, a direct acknowledgment may actually
reduce prejudice-related thought suppression and potentially accompany­
ing negative affect, which can oftentimes activate stereotypes and biases
more strongly (e.g., Macrae et al., 1994). Acknowledgment may also lead
others to believe targets are well-adjusted and to seek out interactions they
would normally avoid. For targets, acknowledgment leads to increased job
satisfaction and decreased job anxiety, particularly if coworkers react well
to acknowledgment (Griffith & Hebl, 2002).
Still another strategy is compensation. People who perceive or anticipate
discrimination may engage in a range of compensatory behaviors. In the
short run, they may be especially motivated to make a good impression.
Miller, Rothblum, Felicio, and Brand (1995) found that that overweight
individuals who feel immediately threatened by the possibility of discrim­
ination act in more socially skilled ways than those who do not experi­
ence such threats. In the longer run, however, people may compensate by