Page 45 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

2. INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL DISCRIMINATION
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presented in Fig. 2.1. For instance, through cooperative interaction and the
pursuit of common goals, people may recategorize others, who were orig­
inally viewed as outgroup members, as members of one larger, inclusive
superordinate group (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000), thereby redirecting the
forces of ingroup favoritism related to social categorization. Intergroup
contact can also decrease bias and discrimination by leading individuals
to develop decategorized representations, that is, by perceiving others in
terms of their unique qualities rather than their group membership, which
can lead to personalized relationships (Miller, 2002). However, if the social
context is competitive rather than cooperative, if the nature of the interac­
tion reinforces stereotypes, or if members are stereotypic in their actions,
contact can actually exacerbate rather than reduce bias.
Target Characteristics

Characteristics of the targets can influence whether they are initially per­
ceived in categorical or personalized ways. When individuating informa­
tion is unavailable, people are perceived primarily in stereotypic ways;
when individuating information is present, perceivers base their judg­
ments primarily on this information (Locksley, Borgida, Brekke, & Hep­
burn, 1980). In addition, when information about a person is available,
the degree to which it is consistent with overall group stereotypes can
determine whether perceptions of the person will be shaped by general
group stereotypes (e.g., stereotypes of women), stereotypes of subtypes
(e.g., stereotypes of business women), or the person's unique qualities.
Once a person is categorized as a member of a group, the nature of
the stigmatizing elements that characterize the social category strongly
influence whether and how discrimination will occur. As suggested ear­
lier, the extent to which a person's membership in a negatively viewed
outgroup (i.e., a stigmatized group) is perceived to be controllable is one
of the strongest determinants of whether individuals will openly express
negative feelings and beliefs and discrimination (Weiner, 1995). Those
who possess stigmas that are perceived to be more controllable (e.g.,
homosexuality, obesity, alcoholism)—particularly when the person's fail­
ure to exercise control is seen as violating cultural values, such as the
Protestant Ethic (Crandall & Martinez, 1996)—are regarded much more
negatively and are generally the targets of open discrimination. In con­
trast, when group membership is perceived to be uncontrollable (e.g., as
with stigmatizing conditions such as physical disabilities) individuals may
often show ambivalent or even somewhat favorable reactions (Hebl &
Kleck, 2002).
Another critical dimension is the perceived threat posed by the out­
group. Perceived threat can involve competition over scarce resources,