Page 40 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

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DOVIDIO AND HEBL
The general evaluative, cognitive, and affective processes form the
foundation for the development of more differentiated responses toward
specific groups. These general tendencies translate into more specifically
defined stereotypes and differentiated emotional reactions.
Stereotypes and Emotional Reactions
Closely related to the initial categorization of people as ingroup or out­
group members is the development of social stereotypes, which arise from
individuals' needs to understand, predict, and control the environment.
Once categorization occurs, members of other groups are viewed as similar
to one another (the outgroup homogeneity effect) and as having common
characteristics. Traits often are overemphasized in stereotypes of outgroups
because dispositional attributions of this type offer stable explanations
for the group's behavior, which enhance feelings of predictability. In ad­
dition, the content of specific group stereotypes (e.g., lazy, incompetent,
emotional) frequently evolves from existing differences in group roles or
statuses within a society and serves to justify and perpetuate these status
differences (Jost, Burgess, & Mosso, 2001).
Intergroup affect can be aroused either broadly (e.g., intergroup anxiety)
or uniquely (e.g., specific, differentiated emotions) in response to the nature
of the group or the group stereotype. Jones et al. (1984) proposed that
specific emotional reactions to groups and group members may be shaped
by cultural factors. In particular, they hypothesized that any given society
has implicit emotion rules that define how its societal members should feel
and react toward members who are deviant. These feelings may involve
anxiety and revulsion, anger, or sympathetic and nurturant feelings. For
example, if people appraise an individual as violating ingroup norms, they
may experience disgust, which in turn prompts avoidance. Such a reaction
may be typical for stigmas, such as being gay or lesbian, which seem to be
tied to the perceived violation of dominant (ingroup) norms and values.
Specific affective reactions to groups may also be a function of the way
groups are stereotyped. Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, and Xu (2002) found that
stereotypes are represented by separate dimensions associated with com­
petence and warmth. Groups that are perceived as high in competence but
low in warmth (e.g., rich people) tend to evoke envy, whereas those high in
competence and high in warmth (e.g., Black professionals) produce admi­
ration. Among groups viewed as low in competence, those who are high in
warmth (e.g., elderly people) are associated with pity, whereas those also
low in warmth (e.g., poor Black people) generate contempt.
As illustrated in Fig. 2.1, social categorization and social identity create
a foundation for developing general biases; stereotypes and differentiated