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31. Thomas M. Scheidel and Laura Crowell, Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Effective Decision Making
“ Developmental Sequences in Small Groups,” and Problem Solving in Groups: A Functional Per-
Quarterly Journal of Speech, 50 (1964): 140–45. spective,” in Small Group Communication, Theory
32. Dennis S. Gouran, Candace Brown, and David and Practice: An Anthology, eds. Randy Y. Hirokawa,
R. Henry, “Behavioral Correlates of Perceptions of Robert S. Cathcart, Larry A. Samovar, and Linda
Quality in Decision- Making Discussions,” Commu- D. Henman (Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2003):
nication Monographs, 45 (1978): 62; William 27–38. Other relevant sources include Dennis
E. Jurma, “Effects of Leader Structuring Style and S. Gouran and Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Functional
Task Orientation Characteristics of Group Theory and Communication in Decision- Making
Members,” Communication Monographs, 46 (1979): and Problem- Solving Groups: An Expanded View,”
282–95. in Communication and Group Decision Making,
33. Jurma, “Effects of Leader Structuring Style.” 2nd ed., eds. R. Y. Hirokawa and M. S. Poole
34. Marshall S. Poole, “Decision Development in Small (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996): 55–80; Randy
Groups II: A Study of Multiple Sequences in Y. Hirokawa, “Communication and Group Decision
Decision Making,” Communication Monographs, 50 Making Efficacy,” in Small Group Communication:
(1983): 224–25; “Decision Development in Small A Reader, 6th ed., eds. Robert S. Cathcart and
Groups III: A Multiple Sequence Model of Group Larry A. Samovar (Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown,
Decision Development,” Communication 1992): 165–77; Randy Y. Hirokawa and Kathryn
Monographs, 50 (1983): 321–41. Rost, “Effective Group Decision Making in Organi-
35. John K. Brilhart and Lurene M. Jochem, “Effects zations: A Field Test of the Vigilant Interaction
of Different Patterns on Outcomes of Problem- Theory,” Management Communication Quarterly, 5
Solving Discussions,” Journal of Applied Psychology, (February 1992): 267–88; Randy Y. Hirokawa,
48 (1964): 175–79. “Group Communication and Decision- Making Per-
36. Ovid L. Bayless, “An Alternative Model for formance: A Continued Test of the Functional Per-
Problem- Solving Discussion,” Journal of Communi- spective,” Human Communication Research, 14
cation, 17 (1967): 188–97; Carl E. Larson, “Forms (1988): 487–515; Dennis S. Gouran, “Inferential
of Analysis and Small Group Problem Solving,” Errors, Interaction, and Group Decision Making,”
Speech Monographs, 36 (1969): 452–55. in Communication and Group Decision Making, eds.
37. Charles M. Kelly, Michael Jaffe, and Gregory R. Y. Hirokawa and M. S. Poole (Beverly Hills, CA:
V. Nelson, “Solving Problems,” Research Manage- Sage, 1986): 93–111; Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Discus-
ment, 30 (1987): 20–23. sion Procedures and Decision- Making Performance:
38. Ibid. A Test of the Functional Perspective,” Human
39. Benjamin J. Broome and Luann Fulbright, “A Communication Research, 12 (1985): 59–74; Randy
Multi- Stage Influence Model of Barriers to Group Y. Hirokawa, “Group Communication and Problem-
Problem Solving: A Participant- Generated Agenda Solving Effectiveness II: An Exploratory Investiga-
for Small Group Research, Small Group Research, tion of Procedural Functions,” Western Journal of
26 (February 1995): 25–55. Speech Communication, 47 (1983), 59–74.
40. Laura A. Hambley, Thomas A. O’Neill, and The- 43. Gouran and Hirokawa, “Effective Decision Making
resa J. B. Kline, “Virtual Team Leadership: Perspec- and Problem Solving in Groups.”
tives from the Field,” International Journal of 44. Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Group Communication and
e- Collaboration, 3 (2007): 40–64; Joseph B. Walther Problem- Solving Effectiveness II”; Marshall
and Ulla Bunz, “The Rules of Virtual Groups: S. Poole and Joel A. Doelger, “Developmental Pro-
Trust, Liking and Performance in Computer- cesses in Group Decision- Making,” in Communica-
Mediated Communication,” Journal of Communica- tion and Group Decision Making, eds.
tion, (2005): 828–846. R. Y. Hirokawa and M. S. Poole (Newbury Park,
41. Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Why Informed Groups Make CA: Sage, 1986): 35–61.
Faulty Decisions,” Small Group Research, 18 45. Hirokawa and Rost, “Effective Group Decision
(1987): 3–29. Making,” 20–22.
42. The principles of the Functional Perspective are 46. Kathleen M. Propp and Daniel Nelson, “Problem-
summarized succinctly in Dennis S. Gouran and Solving Performance in Naturalistic Groups: A Test

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