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Problem Solving and Decision Making in Groups 257

of the Ecological Validity of the Functional Perspec- 57. Poole and Roth, “Decision Development V.”
tive,” Communication Studies, 47 (1996): 35–45. 58. Thomas M. Scheidel and Laura Crowell, “Idea
47. Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Why Informed Groups Make Development in Small Discussion Groups,”
Faulty Decisions, “Small Group Behavior, 18 Quarterly Journal of Speech, 50 (1964): 140–45.
(1987): 3–29. 59. Teresa C. Sabourin and Patricia Geist, “Collabora-
48. Poppy Lauretta McLeod, “Distributed People and tive Production of Proposals in Group Decision
Distributed Information: Vigilant Decision- Making Making,” Small Group Research, 21 (1990): 404–27.
in Virtual Teams,” Small Group Research, 44 60. B. Aubrey Fisher and Randall K. Stutman, “An
(December, 2013): 627–57. Assessment of Group Trajectories: Analyzing
49. Types of questions and their relationship to effective Developmental Breakpoints,” Communication
problem solving and decision making are discussed Quarterly, 35 (1987): 105–24.
in detail in Gouran and Hirokawa, “Effective 61. Charles Pavitt and Kelly Kline Johnson, “Scheidel
Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups.” and Crowell Revisited: A Descriptive Study of
50. Moshe F. Rubenstein, Patterns of Problem Solving Group Proposals Sequencing,” Communication
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975): 1–2. Monographs, 69 (March 2002): 19–32.
51. Brilhart and Jochem, “The Effects of Different 62. Renee A. Meyers, David R. Siebold, and Dale Brash-
Patterns.” ers, “Argument in Initial Group Decision- Making
52. Randy Y. Hirokawa, John G. Oetzel, Carlos Discussions: Refinement of a Coding Scheme and a
G. Aleman, and Scott E. Elston, “The Effects of Eval- Descriptive Quantitative Analysis,” Western Journal
uation Clarity and Bias on the Relationship Between of Speech Communication, 55 (Winter 1991): 47–68.
Vigilant Interaction and Group Decision- Making 63. Much of the following information is distilled from
Efficacy.” Paper presented at the Speech Communi- M. Neil Browne and Stuart M. Keeley, Asking the
cation Association Convention, November 1991. Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking,
53. Robert F. Bales and Fred L. Strodtbeck, “Phases in 11th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2014).
Group Problem- Solving,” Journal of Abnormal and 64. Chuanfu Chen, Qiong Jung, Xuan Huang, Zhiqiang
Social Psychology, 46 (1951): 485–95. Wu, Haiying Hua, Yuan Yu, and Song Chen,
54. For a complete summary of Fisher’s work on “An Assessment of the Completeness of Scholarly
decision- making phases, see B. Aubrey Fisher and Information on the Internet,” College and Research
Donald G. Ellis, Small Group Decision Making: Libraries, 70 (July 2009): 386–401.
Communication and the Group Process, 3rd ed. 65. The following information is taken from Tyrone
(New York: McGraw- Hill, 1990), especially Adams and Norman Clark, The Internet: Effective
Chapter 6. Online Communication (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt,
55. Marshall Scott Poole, “Decision Development in 2001): 166–75.
Small Groups I: A Comparison of Two Models,” 66. Burleson, Levine, and Samter, “Decision- Making
Communication Monographs, 48 (1981): 1–24; Procedure and Decision Quality.”
“Decision Development in Small Groups II: A 67. Carolyn J. Wood, “Challenging the Assumption
Study of Multiple Sequences in Decision Making,” Underlying the Use of Participatory Decision-
Communication Monographs, 50 (1983): 206–32; Making Strategies: A Longitudinal Case Study,”
“Decision Development in Small Groups III: A Small Group Behavior, 20 (1989): 428–48.
Multiple Sequence Model of Group Decision Devel- 68. Paul Miesing and John E. Preble, “Group Processes
opment,” Communication Monographs, 50 (1983): and Performance in Complex Business Simulation,”
321–41; M. Scott Poole and Jonelle Roth, “Deci- Small Group Behavior, 16 (1985): 325–38.
sion Development in Small Groups IV: A Typology 69. Randy Y. Hirokawa, “Consensus Group Decision
of Group Decision Paths,” Human Communication Making, Quality of Decision and Group Satisfac-
Research, 15 (1989): 322–56; “Decision Develop- tion: An Attempt to ‘Sort Fact from Fiction,’”
ment in Small Groups V: Test of a Contingency Central States Speech Journal, 33 (1982): 407–15.
Model,” Human Communication Research, 15 70. Dennis S. Gouran, “Inferential Errors, Interaction,
(1989): 549–89. and Group Decision Making,” in Communication
56. Poole, “Decision Development II” and “Decision and Group Decision Making, eds. R.Y. Hirokawa and
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