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Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN004L-956 June 9, 2001 21:7

DNA Testing in Forensic Science 601

alllelic size ladders. The internal size standard is used to FORENSIC SCIENCE • TOXICOLOGY IN FORENSIC SCIENCE
size all fragments within a lane by detector supplied soft- • TRANSLATION OF RNA TO PROTEIN
ware and assigns repeat numbers from the allele ladder
sizings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. The Use of Internal Size Standards
Adams, D. E., Presley, L. A., and Baumstark, A. L., et al. (1991). “De-
It was previously demonstrated that within gel variation oxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) analysis by restriction fragment length
in DNA migration could be compensated for by placing a polymorphism of blood and other body fluid stains subjected to con-
size ladder within the lane and measuring each fragment tamination and environmental insults,” J. Forensic Sci. 36, 1284–
with the internal size standard. This allows for highly pre- 1298.
Von Beroldingen, C. H., Blake, E. T., Higuchi, R., Sensabaugh, G., and
cise measurements of fragments. This is necessary since
Ehrlich, H. (1989). “Application of PCR to the analysis of biological
the electrophoresis systems used to detect the STR loci evidence. In “PCR Technology: Principles and Applications for DNA
must have the capability of resolving differences between Amplification” (H. A. Ehrlich, ed.), Stockton Press, New York, pp.
alleles as little as one base pair, to make sure that the frag- 209–223.
ment sizes can be accurately converted to repeat numbers. Blake, E., Mihalovich, J., Higuchi, R., Walsh, P. S., and Ehrlich, H.
(1992). “Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of human
This would not be critical if all STR were regular. That is
leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQ oligonucleotide typing on biological
to say always four repeats for the tetra nucleotide STRs. evidence samples: casework experience,” J. Forensic Sci. 37, 700–
However, this is not the case. Some STR loci have one or 726.
more common alleles that differ by only a single base pair Budowle, B., Moretti, T. R., Baumstark, A. L., Defebaugh, D. A., and
(THO1, FGA, and D21S11). An example of this is seen Keys, K. (1999). “Population data on the thirteen CODIS core short
tandem repeat loci in African Americans, US Caucasians, Hispancics,
in Fig. 7B, Panel 1, third sample from the left, in the third
Bahamians, Jamaicans and Trinidadians,” J. Forensic Sci. 44, 1277–
locus from the top. 1286.
Dieffenbach, C. W., and Dveksler, G. S. (1993). “Setting up a PCR
laboratory,” PCR Methods Appl. 3, 2–7.
VII. USEFULNESS IN DETECTING Fr´egeau, C. J., and Fourney, R. M. (1993). “DNA typing with fluores-
MIXTURES cently tagged short tandem Repeats: A sensitive and accurate approach
to human identification,” BioTechniques 15, 100–119.
Haugland, R. P. (1996). “Handbook of Fluorescent Probes and Research
One of the major problems in the analysis of forensic evi- Chemicals, 6th Edition,” Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, pp. 144–156.
dence is posed by samples containing biological material Jeffreys, A., Wilson, V., and Thein, S. L. (1985). “Hypervariable ‘min-
from more than one source. The large number of discrete isatellite’ regions in human DNA,” Nature 314, 67–73.
alleles at multiple loci make STR multiplexes and excel- Kimpton, K. P., Gill, P., Walton, A., Urquhart, A., Millinan, E. A., and
Adams, M. (1993). “Automated DNA profiling employing multiplex
lent tool for identifying components of mixtures.
amplification of short tandem repeat loci,” PCR Methods Appl. 3, 13–
22.
Laber, T. L., O’Connor, J. M., Iverson, J. T., Liberty, J. A., and Bergman,
VIII. INDIVIDUALIZATION D. L. (1992). “Evaluation of four Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) ex-
traction protocols for DNA yield and variation in restriction fragment
In the United States, the FBI has started releasing reports length polymorphism (RFLP) sizes under varying gel conditions,”
J. Forensic Sci. 37, 404–424.
indicating that biological material originated from a spe-
Maniatis,T.,Fritsch,E.F.,andSambrook,J.(1982).“MolecularCloning:
cific source, much as fingerprint examiners have done for A Laboratory Manual,” Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, NY, pp. 458–
many years. The FBI has decided that if the population 459, 469.
frequency exceeds 1 in 230 billion the sample is individu- McNally, L., Shaler, R. C., Baird, M., Balazs, I., Kobilinsky, L., and
alized. Other laboratories have chosen high thresold levels De Forest, P. (1989). “The effects of environment and substrata on
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The use of casework samples from
such as 1 in 500 billion. Whatever the level chosen it is
New York city,” J. Forensic Sci. 34, 1070–1077.
estimated that the average power of exclusion for these 13 Miller, S. A., Dykes, D. D., and Polesky, H. F. (1988). “A simple salting
CODIS loci exceeds 1 in a million billion, and though it out procedure for extracting DNA from human nucleated cells,” Nucl.
is possible to obtain a frequency more common than that Acids Res. 16, 1215.
Mullis, K. B., Faloona, F. A., Scharf, S. J., Saiki, R. K., Horn, G. T.,
required for individualization it will occur infrequently.
and Erlich, H. A. (1986). “Specific enzymatic amplification of DNA
in vitro: The polymerase chain reaction,” Cold Spring Harbor Symp.
SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES Quant. Biol. 51, 263–273.
Shows, T. B., McAlpine, P. J., and Bouchix, C., et al. (1987). “Guide-
lines for human gene nomenclature. An international system for hu-
HYDROGEN BOND • MASS SPECTROMETRY IN FOREN- man gene nomenclature (ISGN,1987),” Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 46, 11–
SIC SCIENCE • PROTEIN STRUCTURE • SPECTROSCOPY IN 28.