Page 226 - Handbook of Biomechatronics

Upper-Limb Prosthetic Devices 223

prototype artificial finger (Oddo et al., 2011) with an integrated micro
electro-mechanical system (MEMS) sensor to demonstrate restoration of
ability to discriminate textural features (Oddo et al., 2016). As shown in
Fig. 24, this was achieved mimicking the natural coding using a
mechano-neuro-transduction (MNT) process (Oddo et al., 2016).
The same group participated also in the prototype development of an
evolution of TIME and LIFE, the self-opening neural interface (SELINE)
electrodes (Cutrone et al., 2015), nevertheless a nerve penetrating-through
electrode.
The Utah group led by Dr. Normann has been using the utah electrode
array (UEA) for cortex applications (like vision restoration) and the utah
slant electrode array (USEA) for peripheral nervous system applications (like
prosthesis control) (Normann and Fernandez, 2016). The UEA and USEA
are commercialized via Blackrock Microsystems, Salt Lake City, UT,
United States. The USEA consists of 100, 0.5–1.5mm long, microneedles,
which project out of a 4 4 0.25mm thick substrate. A recent study has
demonstrated feasibility of the USEA for transradial amputees (Clark et al.,
2014; Davis et al., 2016). Nevertheless, these are penetrating electrodes and
might exhibit nerve tissue necrosis after long implantation periods and
movement artifacts at the periphery (Cutrone et al., 2015).

2.8 Optogenetics

Optogenetics is a powerful neuromodulation method that is using optics
(light source) and genetics (modified genes are injected in advance) to mon-
itor activity or excite neural activity in live animals in real time. This new
line of research has the potential of eliminating the need for implanted elec-
trodes or other microdevices for stimulating peripheral afferent and efferent
nerves with high spatial specificity (Fontaine et al., 2017). This work has
been preceded by general applicability research on biomechanics (Towne
et al., 2013). Recently, MIT achieved a transdermal optogenetics prototype
for ankle activation in mice without the use of any implanted devices for the
read in/out (Maimon et al., 2017)(Fig. 25).

2.9 Biomechatronic EPP
Master/slave teleoperation control topology has been used in the Robotics
field for many decades. A position-force architecture (Cho et al., 2001;
Sheridan, 1992) is proposed (Figs. 26 and 27).