Page 266 - Psychological Management of Individual Performance

250 enhancing performance through training
INTRODUCTION

Globalization and the need to compete at international standards of performance means
that effective organizational training is more important than ever before. Trainers are
expected to develop a highly skilled “expert” workforce that will deliver to organi-
zations a competitive edge, and are under pressure to demonstrate that their programs
lead to genuine performance benefits. In line with these heightened expectations, modern
training has become a sophisticated, technology-driven industry. However, it is essen-
tial that the applications of training aids and methodologies are in keeping with sound
learning principles that are derived from the research literature. These principles need to
be applied to the organizational training program and evaluated systematically to ensure
that training meets research-based standards of best practice. In this chapter, we review
findings from the literatures on expertise, cognition, and organizational psychology, that
provide research benchmarks for designing and evaluating training.

IDENTIFYING TRAINING NEEDS

The usual starting point when designing training is to determine training needs based
on an analysis of task or job requirements within the broader context of organizational
goals (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992; see Table 12.1 for an overview of pre-training strate-
gies for enhancing transfer). A good match between the perceived and actual training
needs of employees is required to ensure that the course content is relevant to employees,
thereby motivating participation in training activities (Smith-Jentsch, Jentsch, Payne, &
Salas, 1996). During the training needs analysis (TNA), the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes required for effective job performance can be identified using a variety of
methods, including observing others performing the job, interviewing expert employees,
conducting group discussions, or administering questionnaires.
Although the TNA specifies the skills required to perform the task, it neglects the skills
that are required to ensure the transfer of skills from training to the workplace that may
be identified in a Transfer of Training Needs Analysis (TTNA) (Hesketh, 1997a, 1997b).
The TTNA takes into account the context in which trainees will carry out their jobs, and
thecognitiveandmeta-cognitiveskillsthatarerequiredtobridgethegapbetweentraining
and on-the-job performance. For example, as part of the TTNA, consideration may be
given to whether job requirements are consistent or inconsistent, and whether future
change is likely (Tannenbaum, 1997). Where changing job requirements are apparent,

TABLE 12.1 Pre-training strategies for enchancing transfer

Training needs analysis (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992)
• Identify knowledge, skills and attitudes required by trainees for effective job performance
• Identify organizational training needs
Transfer of training needs analysis (Hesketh, 1997b)
• Identify meta-cognitive skills required for effective job performance (e.g., planning,
monitoring, evaluation)
• Identify transfer dimensions (e.g., variability of task demands, the environment in which the
task is to be performed, likelihood of future change)