Page 270 - Psychological Management of Individual Performance

254 enhancing performance through training
be solved) is often encoded into its representation. Consequently, if the training and
transfer contexts are represented differently, information acquired during training may
not be accessed because it is not perceived as relevant (Holyoak, 1984). The need for
appropriate information processing again highlights the importance of identifying the
conditions of the transfer environment during the Transfer of Training Needs Analysis
(Hesketh, 1997b). The extent to which effective work performance depends on processes
such as memorization or problem solving should be identified, and training designed
accordingly to provide practice opportunities.

PRACTICE SCHEDULES
Research on expertise points to the importance of sustained practice over extended
periods for the attainment of high skill levels. Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Roemer
(1993) argue that deliberate practice over a ten-year period is usually required to achieve
expert status. Although this degree of practice is outside the scope of most organizational
training programs, training methods that provide practice opportunities, such as role
playing or error training, should be used where possible to ensure that newly acquired
skills are mastered during training.
Massed practice in a short period of time leads to rapid skill acquisition, whereas re-
tention is improved when practice sessions are distributed over time (Schmidt & Bjork,
1992). Distributed practice not only prevents fatigue, but also provides additional op-
portunities for relearning aspects of the task that have been forgotten since the previous
session. Similarly, although consistent practice produces high levels of performance
during training, variable practice leads to better generalization (Gick & Holyoak, 1987;
Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). Where the training needs analysis has identified change as a
feature of the work environment, variable practice provides the opportunity to engage
in transfer appropriate processes related to adapting to changing demands. Neverthe-
less, consistent practice may be appropriate in jobs where task demands are constant
and a reasonably high level of performance is required relatively quickly. In fact, skill
automatization (which is a feature of routine expertise) requires consistent task demands
at some levels (Carlson & Lundy, 1992). Importantly, continued practice after training
ends, in the form of opportunities to perform trained skills on the job, is essential—an
issue discussed later in this chapter.

FEEDBACK

Although it is generally believed that feedback improves learning and performance, more
recent research indicates that the effect of feedback is variable and may even impede
learning. The timing, specificity, and frequency with which feedback is delivered all
influence the degree to which trainees benefit from the intervention (Kluger & DeNisi,
1996). For example, training performance tends to improve as the frequency with which
feedback is delivered increases. However, if feedback is given too frequently, trainees
may come to rely on external feedback without developing internal methods for assessing
their own performance, with the consequence that performance declines when the feed-
back is withdrawn under transfer conditions (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992).
Although overly frequent feedback can interfere with transfer, it is important to note
that, in an organizational context, employees often suffer from too little rather than too