Page 274 - Psychological Management of Individual Performance

258 enhancing performance through training
errors (Alluisi, 1991). Despite the benefits of simulation, ongoing evaluation is essential
to identify possible shortcomings of the technology. Although much of the difficulty
lies in determining which aspects of the real and simulated task should be “identical”,
increasing fidelity may be achieved at the expense of generalizability. Knowledge and
skills may tend to become embedded in a particular context as the realism of simulating
specific situations increases, for the same reason that situated learning may lead to inert
knowledge. Research on examples is instructive of the need to simulate a variety of
situations that are representative of on-the-job demands, and to facilitate comparisons
of similarities and differences among these situations.

ACTIVE LEARNING

A number of training methods have been developed that emphasize the role of the
learner as an active participant in the acquisition of domain-related knowledge. Learn-
ing by exploration (Kamouri, Kamouri, & Smith, 1986) requires trainees to form and test
hypotheses about a task as they search the problem space. Error training (Frese, 1995) is
similar in that it also acknowledges the key role of the trainee in the learning process, but
places a greater emphasis on learning from mistakes. Trainees are encouraged to test the
limits of a task to capitalize on the feedback provided by errors, and are provided with
motivational strategies to focus attention on the positive informational function of errors.
Because trainees take primary responsibility for organizing their own learning activities,
they also have the opportunity to practice meta-cognitive skills related to developing,
implementing, and evaluating problem-solving strategies. Where the work environment
requires employees to cope with new problems that fall outside the range of prior ex-
perience, error training and learning by exploration provide important opportunities for
transfer appropriate processing that prepare the groundwork for developing adaptive
expertise (Ivancic & Hesketh, 2000).
The effectiveness of training methods that emphasize active learning is limited by the
complexity of the task. Trainees may require substantial direct instruction before they can
explore complex tasks independently. Alternatively, trainers may need to provide some
structure to the session by outlining an agenda of information to be discovered (Charney,
Reder, & Kusbit, 1990). In addition, progress must be monitored carefully and corrective
feedback provided if trainees’ exploratory activities are unsuccessful (Needham & Begg,
1991). As with the other training methods described earlier, practice and feedback are
essential components of active learning.

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING TRANSFER

It is tempting for trainers to believe that their work is done once the training program is
completed. However, events that occur when trainees return to the workplace can influ-
ence whether or not trained skills are eventually transferred (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992).
Therefore trainers need to be aware of organizational factors, such as the opportunity to
perform trained skills and the organizational culture/climate, that may impede transfer
so that they may prepare employees for potential difficulties. Table 12.3 summarizes
post-training strategies for enhancing transfer.