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training methods 257
Kahnweiler, 2000). Behavior modeling usually involves giving a verbal explanation of
the key behaviors required to perform a skill, followed by a live or recorded presentation
of a model performing the skill. Following the presentation, trainees practice the skill
and are given positive and negative feedback on aspects of their performance. The skill is
then practiced repeatedly until it is performed adequately. This process has been shown
to produce positive training outcomes in terms of trainee attitudes, domain knowledge,
and on-the-job performance (Russ-Eft & Zenger, 1995).
Role playing is also a useful way of training interpersonal skills. Participants assume
a role and then act out a situation involving human interaction. At the conclusion of the
role play, participants provide feedback on each other’s behaviour and discuss how the
situation may have been handled more effectively. If desired, the roles can be reversed
and the role play re-enacted. Analysis of the role play may be facilitated by videotaping
the role play to provide an objective record of the events that occurred, and to document
improvements in skill execution.
The combination of practice followed by feedback appears to underpin the effective-
ness of these training methods. Importantly, sufficient practice needs to be given to ensure
that the relevant skills are mastered and to prevent skill decay (May & Kahnweiler,
2000). Multiple examples which utilize several different models or which alternate
between positive and negative models also appear to be beneficial (Russ-Eft & Zenger,
1995). Asking trainees to complete checklists evaluating how well they are applying the
skills in the weeks after training has been completed assists retention and performance
of the modeled skill (Werner, O’Leary-Kelly, Baldwin, & Wexley, 1994).

SIMULATION TRAINING

The use of simulation is becoming increasingly widespread as the fidelity of simulators
improves and the cost of the technology reduces. Evidence is emerging that simula-
tors can in fact capture some of the effects observed in real flying and driving behavior
(Duncan, 1998; Salas, Bower, & Rhodenizer, 1998), which in turn has provided justifica-
tion for the use of simulators as training tools in the transport industries and the military.
In addition to technical skills training, there is also a trend toward using simulators for
training in cognitive and decision-making skills, with business games already widespread
in management training (Kozak, Hancock, Arthur, & Chrysler, 1993). Applications for
training in decision making are also available in emergency response command and con-
trol where rapid decisions are required, often in the absence of complete information.
For example, fire simulators are now being used extensively in the UK for training fire
command officers. The simulators model the spread of the fire in real time, with the goal
being to contain the blaze while reducing the incidence of fatality and injury. Trainees
can strategically deploy personnel and firefighting appliances to combat the fire and con-
duct search and rescue operations. The simulators provide scope to create a variety of
different training and transfer tasks by manipulating features of the scenario (e.g., type
of building structure, intensity of the fire, weather conditions). The scenario can also be
replayed so that the extent to which organizational operating procedures were adhered
to can be evaluated, and effective command and control strategies discussed with the
trainee.
One of the main advantages of simulations is the capacity to present infrequently
occurring events, thereby allowing trainees to experiment with decisions and learn from