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STRATEGIC MODEL OF ADDRESS 417

have developed definitions for each which address, contrasting with other languages in
are broader and not necessarily in opposition. which nominal forms can only be used to
Competition, the third concept in the theme attract the attention of a particular hearer or
of this volume, is not considered here, as it characterize the relationship between the
appears to be a different sort of element in speaker and hearer. Nominal forms, often
conversation: a conversational goal which, referred to as vocatives (Leech, 1999), or
depending on the strategic goal of the alerters (Blum-Kulka et al., 1989), are crucial
speakers, may involve both strategies of to the analysis of social relationships in any
cooperation and of conflict. For instance, in language. The term ‘vocative’ is more widely
order to enhance one’s personal advancement known and is therefore the term used here.
(competition), a speaker may decide to insti- After the presentation of the model and an
gate conflict with a competitor she feels is exemplification of ways in which conflict and
inferior and to demonstrate a cooperative cooperation can be achieved through address-
spirit with those in higher positions, choos- ing strategies, it will be demonstrated how
ing the conversational strategies accordingly. the model can be applied to other languages,
In this article the term ‘strategies’ follows the even those whose pronoun system is not
rationale set out by Brown and Levinson nearly so complex as the one in Portuguese.
(1978: 90):
We continue to use the word ‘strategy’, despite its
connotations of conscious deliberation, because
we can think of no other word that will imply a THEORETICAL MODELS USED TO
rational element while covering both (a) innovative ANALYZE ADDRESS
plans of action, which may still be (but need not
be) unconscious, and (b) routines – that is, previ-
ously constructed plans whose original rational When Brown and Gilman (1960) 1972 published
origin is still preserved in their construction, their ground-breaking work on address forms,
despite their present automatic application the fields of sociolinguistics and discourse
as ready-made programs.
analysis were not yet recognized as disciplines
As the title of this chapter indicates, con- in their own right, the essentialist paradigm
flict and cooperation are viewed as dynamic, was still in place, and speech patterns were
negotiable items in the communicative viewed primarily as reflections of the
process that can be created or avoided speaker’s demographic profile, considered her
through the judicious use of address forms. identity. Classifying relationships along the
Exemplified here are some of the ways vertical dimension of Power and the horizon-
speakers can maximize or minimize conflict tal dimension of Solidarity, Power is defined
and cooperation with interlocutors through in a way to include unequal professional rank,
their selection of address. The establishment age, educational or socioeconomic status, as
and maintenance of address form relation- well as the affective considerations of respect,
ships are presented within the framework of deference and the desire to maintain distance,
a model of negotiation that portends to pres- and situational considerations of formality or
ent the complexity of the communicative protocol. Solidarity is defined loosely as
process more accurately than previous ‘symmetric relationships’, emphasizing com-
models. De Oliveira Medeiros (1985), an radeship or equal rank/status. Affective factors
ethnographic study of European Portuguese are also included (trust, intimacy, solidarity),
address, presents the original formulation of as are situational (informality). Focusing on
this model. Portuguese is distinct from many binary pronoun systems, such as tu (T)
other languages in that nominal forms, FN vs. vous (V) in French, they associated T with
(first names), LN (last names), nicknames, solidarity and V with power.
titles (social, professional, administrative, The Brown and Gilman model has been
etc.) can be used as pronouns in direct powerful in the sociolinguistic literature,