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448 THE ISA HANDBOOK IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY

French have equal status: they are both official governments to rule on linguistic rights),
languages. The Canadian Charter of Rights understand this situation in terms of minority
and Freedoms, under article 23, recognizes, rights. Instead, they interpret the issues in
for official language minorities, the right to terms of equal status (equality rights).
instruction in the other official language
(French outside Québec, English in Québec).
However, this right is recognized by virtue of Political systems in opposition
membership in one of the official language
groups of Canada and not by virtue of minority Thus, by declaring two official languages,
rights: this is why other minority language the federal language policy since the 1970s
groups do not have such a right. Furthermore, has been intended to dissociate language
in Québec, French is the official language from its community or particular cultural
and Québec’s language policy reflects a content. In doing so, however, the federal
desire to have French as the common public government created de facto linguistic
language. minorities in its territory (the Francophones
Official languages policies in Canada and outside Québec and the Anglophones in
in Québec therefore do not proceed from a Québec) which, by requiring an actual lin-
policy of multiculturalism (or rather multilin- guistic equality, reintroduced a link between
gualism), which would voluntarily recognize language and culture. Thus, article 23 of the
minority languages in partnership with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
dominant language(s). Language policy in (enshrined in the Constitution of 1982)
Canada, as in Québec, is more a classical obliges governments (above all provincial
policy of national language, sometimes ones, since education is a provincial respon-
expressed in terms of a binational state, sibility) to provide education and to supply
sometimes in terms of national minorities. educational institutions to linguistic minori-
Moreover, looking back on Canadian politi- ties, where numbers justify it.
cal history, multiculturalism was developed, In recent years, the Supreme Court of
as Denis has noted, if not in opposition to, at Canada has tended to interpret the clause on
least partly in an effort to limit, nationalistic language laws generously, which means that
demands associated with official languages it has forced governments not only to provide
(notably demands of Francophones). services in two official languages, but also to
Sociologically, the matter is a little more promote the development of the official lan-
complex. In the Canadian and North guage communities when they are minori-
American contexts (less than 25% of the ties. This also means, however, by virtue of
Canadian population is French speaking, as the same principles, that the Supreme Court
is only about 3% of the population of North has invalidated some Québec language laws,
America), the French language in Canada is the aim of which is the promotion of French,
in a precarious minority situation every- as being contrary to the linguistic equality
where, even in Québec. Francophones are at promoted by the Charter and to the respect of
great risk of being assimilated outside linguistic minorities. Notably, the courts
Québec, except in the province of New have invalidated restrictions imposed in
Brunswick where the erosion of the French Québec on enrolment of Anglophone
language is slow. Even in Québec, it is only Canadians in English schools, and in the
in a situation of relative stability, in spite of French unilingualism of public signs. 30
language laws that have, for some 30 years, At the same time as the federal government
promoted its usage. There, neither French established a linguistic regime favouring pan-
language activists, nor the courts (which are Canadian bilingualism and promoting official
regularly called upon by both activists and language minorities in the provinces where