Page 104 - Contemporary Political Sociology Globalization Politics and Power

90 Social Movements

based or centered on small groups rather than nationally oriented; orga-
nized around specifi c issues rather than offering general solutions; experi-
ence vacillations of high and low activity rather than enjoying a relatively

stable membership; and are run by fluid hierarchies and loose authority
structures (Scott, 1990 : 30). However, the organizational forms of social
movements are best seen as a continuum, and where organizations are
formed to address movement demands to states they may be as bureau-
cratic and hierarchical as any political party. Indeed, the green parties
associated with the environmental movement are a case in point, even if
there is still ongoing discussion within these parties about how to avoid
bureaucratization and hierarchies. This is also the case wherever NGOs
are formed as part of a social movement network, though they do vary.
Social movement organizations that rely on the subscriptions of members
without involving them in decision - making or action are at one end of
the continuum. Greenpeace is a well - known example of this type of envi-
ronmental organization; its members are not themselves involved in the
well - planned, dangerous, and often illegal direct action it undertakes. In
contrast, Friends of the Earth is run more on the basis of the participation
of members who are actively involved in their own localities, and employs
a minimum of professional staff.
The contrast between old and new social movements in terms of their
orientations toward the state or civil society is also over - drawn. It is
certainly important to note that a large proportion of social movement
activity is addressed to changing practices and identities in civil society.
This is clear in the case of the women ’ s movement, for example, which

has been extremely influential in opening up virtually all aspects of the
relations between the sexes to public debate and in creating the necessity
for individuals to make lifestyle choices in terms of their personal relation-
ships and employment practices; in recent, so - called political correctness
disputes, which largely concern the contestation of language; in questions
raised by the environmental movement concerning ethical consumerism
and life - style; and in struggles over ethnic identity, often articulated
around music, dress, and in relation to the construction of historical
narratives. Legislation is too blunt an instrument to deal with most of the
issues raised by social movements, and changes in the law and social
policy are often less the direct objective of their activities and more a
consequence of changes in civil society which they have brought about.
However, it is also the case that all social movements which organize to
improve their constituents ’ social conditions have aimed to extend citizen-
ship rights. This is not a unique feature of the workers ’ movement; it was
the case for the civil rights movement, for example, and it has long been