Page 56 - From Smart Grid to Internet of Energy

42 From smart grid to internet of energy

and overall efficiency can be increased by preventing detected disturbances.
The overhead transmission lines are mostly monitored by using wireless sensor
networks and fiber optic current and voltage sensors while smart current and
voltage sensors with communication interface are used in LV and MV distribu-
tion systems such as substations and feeders. There are several high voltage
(HV) sensors with wireless communication capability used for synchrophasor
monitoring in transmission lines to detect line voltages in high accurate mag-
nitudes. The PMUs are also classified in this group of wireless smart sensor net-
works with global positioning system (GPS) and coordinated universal time
(UCT) units. The advanced additional units of PMUs provide synchronized
and highly reliable data transmission with support of satellite or cellular com-
munication technologies [28].
The consumer side sensing and metering processes offer a wide range of
applications to both customer and DSOs in term of DSM and demand response
programs. Moreover, it provides real time power consumption for billing and
control option to limit or stop the power consumption automatically for defined
DSM requirements. The smart meters and AMI are most critical sensor net-
works that are used to detect time of use (TOU) and demand rates at consumer
side. Another important use of smart sensors and sensor networks are applicable
for ESSs and batteries that are used to comprise a backup for RESs and DERs
along distributed generation plants. The significant parameters considered for
ESSs are state of charge (SoC), state of health (SoH), voltage, current, and tem-
perature of batteries. The SoC is one of the most important parameter to be con-
tinuously monitored to detect serious disturbances on acid level and acid density
of lead acid batteries. In addition to ESSs, energy storage applications are run
across EVs and PHEVs where the sensor networks are widely used to monitor
SoC and SoH during their autonomous operation and grid interaction.
The smart sensors and sensor networks are depended on several wireline and
wireless communication technologies such as listed in Table 1.3. Furthermore,
cognitive radio networks and internet based recent communication systems are
adopted to Smart Grid infrastructure to perform data transmission. There are
several technical challenges such as transmission losses, fading effects, channel
noises and bit error rate (BER) affect selection of proper communication
method in smart sensor networking. Other critical parameters of communica-
tion method selection are reliability, security, accuracy, and latency. In order
to ensure to select and use of reliable communication interface, a number of
standards have been defined for smart sensor networks used in Smart Grid infra-
structure [28]. A list of featured active standards and short descriptions of these
standard types are presented in Table 1.6. One of the most significant standard
on data transmission along Smart Grid is IEEE 1159.3. Any system located in
the grid provides its own control, communication, and transmission method to
interact with other systems. Under these circumstances, each system and owner
may face with problems while exchanging measurement and monitoring data
between other systems. Therefore, IEEE has developed a standard titled IEEE