Page 65 - From Smart Grid to Internet of Energy

Introduction to smart grid and internet of energy systems Chapter 1 51

provide wireline and/or wireless communication methods that allows two-way
data stream between user and DSO. In addition to two main sections of a smart
meter, it may also include auxiliary modules such as power supply, controller,
metering and data acquisition interface, timer, protection devices, data logging
module and encoding/decoding modules. The data logging module that is essen-
tial for smart meters provides data storage capability for consumer information
such as identification, energy consumption logs, time stamp and outage records.
The metering section comprises analog interface that interacts with grid to con-
nect residential wiring to distribution network and is equipped with voltage and
current transducers to install metering interface. The billing module is associ-
ated with timing module to generate TOU pricing data with timestamp [1].
Besides remote monitoring and smart metering applications, smart meters
provide several adjunct applications and services such as DSM, energy theft
protection, and CPS security. The DSM and DR programs are improved to meet
consumers energy demand while protecting the balance between generation and
consumption. Moreover, DSM and DR programs enable DSOs to effectively
manage energy generation demands by preventing mass generation in unneces-
sary times. One of the most important aim of DSM is load shifting by control-
ling peak clipping, load shedding, valley filling, and peak shifting methods. The
balance is determined according to load sufficiency and demand rates to operate
these loads shifting methods where peak clipping allows reducing energy con-
sumption during peak time while valley filling is performed by increasing
energy consumption during valley times. The peak shifting which refers to
composition of peak clipping and valley filling facilitates reducing the peak
loads while responding to energy demand of base loads. Due to these require-
ments of DSM and DR programs, the instant and precise metering should be
addressed by using smart meters. The DR programs are based on price-based
or incentive-based approaches where most common price-based programs
are TOU, critical peak pricing (CPP), critical peak rebate (CPR), and real-time
pricing (RTP) [7, 40].

1.3.4 Wireless sensor networks
The wireless sensor network (WSN) implies for a network comprised by wire-
less sensors cooperatively operating to sense physical and electrical parameters,
to control changes along their operation environment, and to interact with its
CPS by machine-to-machine (M2M) communication interfaces. The recent
WSNs are comprised by nodes of sensor, transducers, actuators and gateways.
A wide variety of sensor nodes are deployed around the monitoring and control
area to install a sensor network that each sensor is connected to each other by
hopping methods. The acquired data is collected, processed and transmitted to
other nodes by single or multihop routing until it reaches to management node.
The WSN is configured by users or services to get required management pro-
cesses. The improved WSN technologies such as IEEE 802.15.4 based ZigBee,