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Three-Phase Photovoltaic Systems: Structures, Topologies, and Control 87

geographical area can help mitigate the fast power fluctuations. On the other hand, in the case of
a high PV generation density, reserves can be used to compensate for the plant output variability,
either by auxiliary energy storage or by internal APR.

4.5 SUMMARY
The technology of three-phase PV inverters is maturing, and a few key topologies of success have
emerged that dominate the market, with peak conversion efficiencies reaching 98.5%. The main grid
interfacing, safety, and power extraction features are well understood and are standard elements of
the grid-connected PV inverters. The exceptional success of PV energy technology in the last couple
of decades has led to a maturity level where the focus is now shifting from grid interfacing issues to
(large-scale) grid integration challenges. In many countries, grid parity has been achieved, and it is
expected that the next challenge for (very) high penetration of PV will be related to the intermittency
of the PV generation. As a consequence, APRs (both by internal and auxiliary storage systems) will
keep increasing their significance.

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