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304 Part 4 • the essentials of Design

Avoiding Bias in the Design of Output
Systems analysts can use specific strategies to avoid biasing the output they and others design:
1. Be aware of the sources of bias.
2. Create an interactive design of output during prototyping that includes users and a variety
of differently configured systems when testing the appearance of Web documents.
3. Work with users so that they are informed of the output’s biases and can recognize the
implications of customizing their displays.
4. Create output that is flexible and that allows users to modify limits and ranges.
5. Train users to rely on multiple outputs for conducting “reality tests” on system output.

All these strategies except the first focus on the relationship between a systems analyst and users
as it involves output. Systems analysts need to recognize the potential impact of output and be
aware of the possible ways in which output is unintentionally biased. They then need to be proac-
tive in helping users design output with minimal, but identifiable, biases.

Designing Printed Output
The source of information to be included in reports is the data dictionary, the compilation of
which was covered in Chapter 8. Recall that the data dictionary includes names of data elements
as well as the required field length of each entry.
Reports fall into three categories: detailed, exception, and summary. Detailed reports print a
report line for every record on the master file. They are used for mailings to customers, sending
student grade reports, printing catalogs, and so on. Inquiry screens have replaced many detailed
reports.
Exception reports print a line for all records that match a set of conditions, such as which
holiday decorations will be discounted the day after the holiday or which students are on the
dean’s list. They are usually used to help operations managers and clerical staff run a business.
Summary reports print one line for a group of records and are used to make decisions, such as
which items are not selling and which are hot selling.
A systems designer must understand that some website visitors might prefer to print out
content. Consider inserting PDF files that can be downloaded and try printing each page in dif-
ferent browsers to ensure they will have a professional look if a user prints them.

Designing Output for Displays
Chapter 12 covers designing displays for human or computer input, and the same guidelines also
apply for designing output, although the contents will change. Notice that output for displays dif-
fers from printed output in a number of ways. It is ephemeral (that is, a display is not permanent
in the same way that printouts are), it can be more specifically targeted to the user, it is available
on a more flexible schedule, it is not portable in the same way, and sometimes it can be changed
through direct interaction.
In addition, users must be instructed on which keys to press, which links to click, and how
to scroll when they want to continue reading additional displays, when they want to know how to
end the display, and when they want to know how to interact with the display (if possible). User
access to displays may be controlled through a password, whereas distribution of printed output
is controlled by other means.

Guidelines for Display Design
Four guidelines facilitate the design of displays:
1. Keep the display simple.
2. Keep the presentation consistent.
3. Facilitate user movement among displayed output.
4. Create an attractive and pleasing display.
Just as with printed output, good displays are not created in isolation. Systems analysts need the
feedback of users to design worthwhile displays. Once approved by users after successive proto-
types and refinements, the display layout can be finalized.