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Hegemony 79

suggests that what really matters are distinctions based on the consumption of particu-
lar goods. Thus social identity becomes a question of what we consume rather than
what we produce. Like all ideology, advertising functions by interpellation: it creates
subjects who in turn are subjected to its meanings and its patterns of consumption. The
consumer is interpellated to make meaning and ultimately to purchase and consume
and purchase and consume again. For example, when I am addressed in terms such as
‘people like you’ are turning this or that product, I am interpellated as one of a group,
but more importantly as an individual ‘you’ of that group. I am addressed as an indi-
vidual who can recognize myself in the imaginary space opened up by the pronoun
‘you’. Thus I am invited to become the imaginary ‘you’ spoken to in the advertisement.
But such a process is for Althusser an act of ideological ‘misrecognition’. First, in the
sense that in order for the advert to work it must attract many others who also recog-
nize themselves in the ‘you’ (each one thinking they are the real ‘you’ of its discourse).
Second, it is misrecognition in another sense: the ‘you’ I recognize in the advert is in
fact a ‘you’ created by the advertisement. As Slavoj yizek (1992) points out, interpella-
tion works like this: ‘I don’t recognise myself in it because I’m its addressee, I become
its addressee the moment I recognise myself in it’ (12). Advertising, then, according to
this perspective, flatters us into thinking we are the special ‘you’ of its discourse and in
so doing we become subjects of and subjected to its material practices: acts of con-
sumption. Advertising is thus ideological both in the way it functions and in the effects
it produces.
One of the problems with Althusser’s second model of ideology, and its application
in cultural theory, is that it seems to work too well. Men and women are always suc-
cessfully reproduced with all the necessary ideological habits required by the capitalist
mode of production; there is no sense of failure, let alone any notion of conflict, strug-
gle or resistance. In terms of popular culture, do advertisements, for example, always
successfully interpellate us as consuming subjects? Moreover, even if interpellation
works, previous interpellations may get in the way (contradict and prevent from work-
ing) of current interpellations. Put simply, if I know that racism is wrong, a racist joke
will fail to interpellate me. It was against this background of concerns that many work-
ing within the field of cultural studies turned to the work of the Italian Marxist Antonio
Gramsci.

Hegemony

Central to the cultural studies appropriation of Gramsci is the concept of hegemony.
Hegemony is for Gramsci a political concept developed to explain (given the exploita-
tive and oppressive nature of capitalism) the absence of socialist revolutions in the
Western capitalist democracies. The concept of hegemony is used by Gramsci (2009)
to refer to a condition in process in which a dominant class (in alliance with other classes
or class fractions) does not merely rule a society but leads it through the exercise of