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84 Chapter 4 Marxisms

the discursive character of an object does not, by any means, imply putting its
existence into question. The fact that a football is only a football as long as it is
integrated within a system of socially constructed rules does not mean that it ceases
to be a physical object. . . . For the same reason it is the discourse which constitutes
the subject position of the social agent, and not, therefore, the social agent which
is the origin of discourse – the same system of rules that makes that spherical
object into a football, makes me a player (159).

In other words, objects exist independently of their discursive articulation, but it is only
within discourse that they can exist as meaningful objects. For example, earthquakes
exist in the real world, but whether they are

constructed in terms of ‘natural phenomena’ or ‘expressions of the wrath of God’,
depends upon the structuring of a discursive field. What is denied is not that such
objects exist externally to thought, but the rather different assertion that they could
constitute themselves as objects outside any discursive condition of emergence
(Laclau and Mouffe, 2001: 108).

The meanings produced in discourse inform and organize action. It is only in
discourse, for example, that ‘a relation of subordination’ can become ‘a relation of
oppression’, and thereby constitute itself as a site of struggle (153). Someone may be
‘objectively’ oppressed but unless they recognize their subordination as oppression, it
is unlikely that this relation will ever become antagonistic and therefore open to the
possibility of change. Hegemony works, as Laclau (1993) explains, by the transforma-
tion of antagonism into simple difference.

A class is hegemonic not so much to the extent that it is able to impose a uniform
conception of the world on the rest of society, but to the extent that it can articu-
late different visions of the world in such a way that their potential antagonism is
neutralised. The English bourgeoisie of the 19th century was transformed into a
hegemonic class not through the imposition of a uniform ideology upon other
classes, but to the extent that it succeeded in articulating different ideologies to its
hegemonic project by an elimination of their antagonistic character (161–2).

‘Articulation’ is a key term in post-Marxist cultural studies. ‘The practice of articula-
tion’, as Laclau and Mouffe (2001) explain, ‘consists in the . . . partial fix[ing] of mean-
ing’ (113). Hall (1996b) has developed the concept to explain the ways in which
culture is a terrain of ideological struggle. Like Laclau and Mouffe, he argues that texts
and practices are not inscribed with meaning; meaning is always the result of an act
of articulation. As he points out, ‘Meaning is a social production, a practice. The world
has to be made to mean’ (2009a: 121). He also draws on the work of the Russian the-
orist Valentin Volosinov (1973). Volosinov argues that texts and practices are ‘multi-
accentual’: that is, they can be ‘spoken’ with different ‘accents’ by different people