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86 Chapter 4 Marxisms

In Chapter 3 we examined Williams’s (2009) social definition of culture. We dis-
cussed it in terms of how it broadens the definition of culture: instead of culture
being defined as only the ‘elite’ texts and practices (ballet, opera, the novel, poetry),
Williams redefined culture to include as culture, for example, pop music, television,
cinema, advertising, going on holiday, etc. However, another aspect of Williams’s
social definition of culture has proved even more important for cultural studies, espe-
cially post-Marxist cultural studies – the connection he makes between meaning and
culture.

There is the ‘social’ definition of culture, in which culture is a description of a
particular way of life, which expresses certain meanings and values not only in art and
learning but also in institutions and ordinary behaviour. The analysis of culture,
from such a definition, is the clarification of the meanings and values implicit in a
particular way of life (32; my italics).

The importance of a particular way of life is that it ‘expresses certain meanings and
values‘. Moreover, cultural analysis from the perspective of this definition of culture ‘is
the clarification of the meanings and values implicit in a particular way of life’.
Moreover, culture as a signifying system is not reducible to ‘a particular way of life’;
rather, it is fundamental to the shaping and holding together of a particular way of
life. This is not to reduce everything ‘upwards’ to culture as a signifying system, but
it is to insist that culture defined in this way, should be understood ‘as essentially
involved in all forms of social activity’ (Williams, 1981: 13). While there is more to life
than signifying systems, it is nevertheless the case that ‘it would ...be wrong to sup-
pose that we can ever usefully discuss a social system without including, as a central
part of its practice, its signifying systems, on which, as a system, it fundamentally
depends’ (207).
Following this definition, and the discourse theory of Laclau and Mouffe, post-
Marxist cultural studies defines culture as the production, circulation, and consump-
tion of meanings. As Hall (1997b), for example, explains, ‘Culture . . . is not so much
a set of things – novels and paintings or TV programmes and comics – as a process, a
set of practices. Primarily, culture is concerned with the production and exchange of
meanings – the giving and taking of meaning’ (2). According to this definition, cultures
do not so much consist of, say, books; cultures are the shifting networks of signification
in which, say, books are made to signify as meaningful objects. For example, if I pass a
business card to someone in China, the polite way to do it is with two hands. If I pass
it with one hand I may cause offence. This is clearly a matter of culture. However, the
culture is not so much in the gesture as in the meaning of the gesture. In other words,
there is nothing essentially polite about using two hands; using two hands has been
made to signify politeness. Nevertheless, signification has become embodied in a mater-
ial practice, which may, in turn, produce material effects (I will say more about this
later). Similarly, as Marx (1976c) observed, ‘one man is king only because other men
stand in the relation of subjects to him. They, on the contrary, imagine that they are
subjects because he is king’ (149). This relationship works because they share a culture