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82 Chapter 4 Marxisms

industries eventually succeed in marketing subcultural resistance for general consump-
tion and profit. As Hebdige explains: ‘Youth cultural styles may begin by issuing sym-
bolic challenges, but they must end by establishing new sets of conventions; by
creating new commodities, new industries or rejuvenating old ones’ (96).
The concept of hegemony allows students of popular culture to free themselves from
the disabling analysis of many of the previous approaches to the subject. Popular cul-
ture is no longer a history-stopping, imposed culture of political manipulation (the
Frankfurt School); nor is it the sign of social decline and decay (the ‘culture and civil-
ization’ tradition); nor is it something emerging spontaneously from below (some ver-
sions of culturalism); nor is it a meaning-machine imposing subjectivities on passive
subjects (some versions of structuralism). Instead of these and other approaches, hege-
mony theory allows us to think of popular culture as a ‘negotiated’ mix of what is made
both from ‘above’ and from ‘below’, both ‘commercial’ and ‘authentic’; a shifting
balance of forces between resistance and incorporation. This can be analysed in many
different configurations: class, gender, generation, ethnicity, ‘race’, region, religion, dis-
ability, sexuality, etc. From this perspective, popular culture is a contradictory mix of
competing interests and values: neither middle nor working class, neither racist nor
non-racist, neither sexist nor non-sexist, neither homophobic nor homophilic ...but
always a shifting balance between the two – what Gramsci calls ‘a compromise equi-
librium’ (2009: 76). The commercially provided culture of the culture industries is
redefined, reshaped and redirected in strategic acts of selective consumption and pro-
ductive acts of reading and articulation, often in ways not intended or even foreseen by
its producers.

Post-Marxism and cultural studies

As Angela McRobbie (1992) observes, Marxism is no longer as influential in cultural
studies as it has been in the past:

Marxism, a major point of reference for the whole cultural studies project in the
UK, has been undermined not just from the viewpoint of the postmodern critics
who attack its teleological propositions, its meta-narrative status, its essentialism,
economism, Eurocentrism, and its place within the whole Enlightenment project,
but also, of course, as a result of the events in Eastern Europe, with the discredit-
ing of much of the socialist project (719).

What is certain, as she explains, is that ‘the return to a pre-postmodern Marxism as
marked out by critics like Fredric Jameson (1984) and David Harvey (1989) is un-
tenable because the terms of that return are predicated on prioritizing economic rela-
tions and economic determinations over cultural and political relations by positioning
these latter in a mechanical and reflectionist role’ (ibid.). But more than this, there is a