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144 8 Designing Learning Activities and Instructional Systems
based on what designers actually do and reflects the dynamic and complex nature of
instructional design. In addition, new models are emerging that highlight the role of
collaboration, co-construction of understanding, and team problem solving.

8.3.2.1 The Four-Component Instructional Design Model
The four-component instructional design model (4C/ID) developed by van Mer-
riënboer (1997). The 4C/ID instructional model is characterized by four compo-
nents: (1) learning tasks, (2) supportive information, (3) procedural information,
and (4) part-task practice. Tasks are ordered by task difficulty, and each task is
offered at the beginning a lot of scaffolding which will be reduced as the learner
progresses.
Table 8.8 shows the relationship of the four basic components to the associated
steps involved in complex learning (van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2007).
According to van Merriënboer et al. (2002), the 4C/ID model addresses at least
three deficits in previous instructional design models.

• First, the 4C/ID model focuses on the integration and coordinated performance
of task-specific constituent skills rather than on knowledge types, context, or
presentation-delivery media.
• Second, the model makes a critical distinction between supportive information
and required just-in-time information (the latter specifies the performance
required, not only the type of knowledge required).
• Third, traditional models use either part-task or whole-task practice; the 4C/ID
model recommends a mixture where part-task practice supports very complex,
“whole-task” learning.

8.3.2.2 Tennyson’s Fourth-Generation ISD Model
The complexity of instructional design is evident in the Fourth-Generation
Instructional Systems Design (ISD-4) model developed by Tennyson (Tennyson,
1993). Tennyson’s ISD-4 model is based on a synthesis of what instructional
designers actually do.

Table 8.8 Components of Components Steps to complex learning
4C/ID
Leaning tasks 1. Design learning tasks
2. Sequence task classes
3. Set performance objectives
Supportive information 4. Design supportive information
5. Analyze cognitive strategies
6. Analyze mental models
Procedural information 7. Design procedural information
8. Analyze cognitive rules
9. Analyze prerequisite knowledge
Part-task practice 10. Design part-task practice