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Smart metering and smart monitoring systems Chapter 2 69

transmission requires data concentrators between NAN and WAN connection
nodes and data management is managed through concentrator devices. A
WAN is comprised by several NANs exchanging information between smart
meters and monitoring center. The communication medium of a WAN is mostly
based on licensed frequency bands and technologies such as general packet
radio service (GPRS), Worldwide interoperability for microwave access
(WiMAX), Satellite and cognitive radio networks (CRNs) [2, 4, 6, 7].
The electricity meter is exploited to detect consumed energy rate of cus-
tomer as its name implies. In addition to consumed electricity, the transmission
and distribution charges are also calculated by DSOs regarding to consume
quantity. The most widely and long-lasting used electricity meter is known
as electromechanical accumulation meter that records consumption according
to time intervals. The accumulation meters cannot be remotely reached or con-
trolled and thus, billing was performed by specific period by manual readings.
Since the billing periods are quite long as months, short intervals are required
for billing and meter readings in recent years. To this point, some advanced
electricity meters called interval meters have been improved with the capability
of recording consumption data in short intervals such as hourly or once in a half
an hour.
The interval meters have increased capabilities of DSOs by allowing them to
schedule specific tariffs and DR programs to manage customer requirements.
Moreover, DSM and DR programs have come into question to improve control
and management abilities in the context of generation and consumption bal-
ance. The evolution of metering devices illustrated in Fig. 2.1 describes these
improvements. The AMR applications have brought one-way communication
option to monitoring and control centers that facilitated near real-time metering.
The smart meters are more sophisticated comparing to their predecessors with
their two-way communication capability. Besides, smart meters provide real-
time measurement data at any interval on demand. Thus, DSM and DR program
developments are completed in faster and reliable approaches comparing to pre-
vious applications. The comparison of AMR and AMI features has been listed in
Table 2.1. The smart meters provide dynamic pricing regarding to real-time
measurement and instant connection between customer premises and network
operator. On the other hand, AMI technology provides utility management, DR
programs, and emergency response options against monthly data reading option
of AMR systems. In addition to billing and CIS features of AMR, AMI provides
several key services such as customer data management and display, outage
management, and emergency DR. The remote connection and disconnection
feature of smart meters facilitate to improve DSM and DR programs on network
operator side by enabling load shedding operations. Moreover, theft and losses
are prevented due to remote control capability of smart meters.
Another contribution of smart meters is increased interaction of customers
with network by exploiting DR programs, HEMS, and self-cost or billing con-
trol capabilities while none of these are available in conventional metering