Page 306 - Sustainable Cities and Communities Design Handbook

280 Sustainable Cities and Communities Design Handbook

the share of RE in the energy mix of many developed countries has increased
substantially, and this trend is expected to continue in the future. Nevertheless,
the various technical and economic challenges posed by a high level of RE
integration have led many experts to dismiss the development of a 100% RE
mix as a utopian ideal. However, recent studies point out that the design of
carbon-neutral energy systems is technologically achievable (Jacobson et al.,
2014; Elliston et al., 2013). The prospects for a completely “green” system
improve each year as favorable market economics and continuing technological
innovation contribute to make RE technologies less expensive, more efficient,
and reliable. A host of developed countries, including Denmark (Lund and
Mathiesen, 2009), Portugal (Kraja ci cet al., 2011), Ireland (Connolly et al.,
2011), and New Zealand (Mason et al., 2010), have already developed elaborate
roadmaps that detail the optimized combinations of RE resources and ancillary
capabilities to meet their energy demands exclusively through clean energy
sources in the long term.
Developing countries have a key role to play in the concerted effort toward
the global transition to greater reliance on RE resources. Rising energy demand
is characteristic of most developing nations as their expenditures on energy-
consuming services that provide enhanced productivity, leisure, and comfort
escalate. The International Energy Outlook 2013 report projects that growth in
world energy consumption will predominantly emanate from noneOrganisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries in the future
(IEO,2013).Thus energyuse innon-OECDcountriesisexpected togrow by2.2%
annually and their share of global energy consumption is projected to rise from
54% in 2010 to 65% in 2040 (IEO, 2013). With this in mind, developing nations
also account for 95 of the 138 countries with RE support policies in 2014, up from
15 in 2005 (REN21, 2014). In addition, five developing countries (Uruguay,
Mauritius, Costa Rica, South Africa, and Nicaragua) led the investments per
gross domestic product (GDP) on RE technologies in 2013, spending between
0.8% and 1.6% of their GDP in this area (REN21, 2014). These initiatives
underscore the fact that developing and emerging countries appear to be poised
to make the switch to 100% RE given the necessary financial, political, and
technological support. Owing to their unique characteristics and vulnerabilities,
small island developing states (SIDS) denote a distinctive case for sustainable
development among developing economies. The absence of exploitable natural
resources in SIDS implies a massive reliance on imported fossil fuels for their
energy requirements causing their small economies to be extremely vulnerable to
fuel price fluctuations. This vulnerability is mainly due to their remote geographic
location and economic structure (Levantis, 2008). Energy prices in SIDS are
much higherthan incontinental countries because ofhighfueltransportationcosts
and constraints on exploiting scale economies through bulk purchasing. The
economies of SIDS also rely on fuel-intensive activities such as tourism. As a
result, a significant share of the national budget is devoted to oil imports. In