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NOTES
8. Steven Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect: An Examination of
Media Effects According to Type of Military Intervention”
(Cambridge, MA: The Joan Shorenstein Center Research on the
Press, Politics, and Public Policy, John F. Kennedy School of
Government, Harvard University, 1997), 1, http://www.ksg.harvard.
edu/presspol/Research_Publications/Papers/Research_Papers/
R18.pdf.
9. Piers Robinson, “The CNN Effect: Can the News Media
Drive Foreign Policy?” Review of International Studies 25, no. 2
(1999): 301.
10. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Redefining NATO’s Mission in the Information
Age,” NATO Review (Web Edition) 47, no. 4 (1999): 12–15,
http://www.nato.int/docu/review/1999/9904-03.htm.
11. The term “agent” refers to the technologies, organizations, journalists,
and other institutions and individuals required for a CNN effect.
12. The CNN effect has inaccurately at times been attributed to just the
coverage of CNN itself. This interpretation seems to miss the point of
the larger phenomena alleged to be at play. For an example of an erro-
neous assessment, see Jonathan Mermin, Debating War and Peace:
Media Coverage of U.S. Intervention in the Post-Vietnam Era
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 132–133.
13. Taylor, Global Communications, 85.
14. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, “How Americans
Used the Internet after the Terror Attack” (Washington, DC: 2001),
http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/pdfs/PIP_Terror_Report.pdf.
Based on telephone interviews on September 12–13 with 1,226
adults.
15. Taylor, Global Communications, 85.
16. Nik Gowing, “Real-Time Television Coverage of Armed Conflicts
and Diplomatic Crises: Does It Pressure or Distort Foreign Policy
Decisions?” (Cambridge, MA: The Joan Shorenstein Center Research
on the Press, Politics, and Pubic Policy, John F. Kennedy School of
Government, Harvard University, 1994), 19.
17. Pew Research Center, “How Americans Used the Internet.”
18. Although it is noted that recent innovations in mobile telephone tech-
nology do allow for broadcast text messaging and the likely growth of
personal video phones (following the trend of camera phones) will
likely allow for the possibility of mass image dissemination in the near
future.
19. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. Michael Howard and Peter Paret
(London: Everyman, 1993), 101. Also see Martin Van Creveld, On
Future War (London: Brassey’s, 1991), 35. The concept of Trinitarian
War will be examined in more detail in chapter 3.
20. Although the government and its foreign policy will be the area of
focus in this book’s case study.