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NOTES
30. Barrie Dunsmore, “The Next War: Live?” (Cambridge, MA: The Joan
Shorenstein Center Research on the Press, Politics, and Pubic Policy,
John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, March
9–11,
1996),
http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/Research_
Publications/Papers/Discussion_Papers/D22.pdf.
31. Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect,” 5.
32. Ibid., 6–10.
33. This argument itself is based on the assumption that there is some-
thing that can be identified as the “national interest.” While tradi-
tional political realism suggests that the national interest exists and is
identifiable, critics suggest that it is only determined retrospectively
and cannot accurately be discerned regarding present and future
events and circumstances. See Justin Rosenberg, The Empire of Civil
Society (London: Verso, 1994), chapter 1.
34. The perceived national interest has taken an interesting twist of fate in
the United States since September 2001, as zones of human suffering
such as Afghanistan, previously believed to have little link with U.S.
national security, became breeding grounds for militant anti-
Americans. As a result, the George W. Bush administration that came
to power on an isolationist platform, critical of the Clinton adminis-
tration and its “Nation Building,” is now more engaged than its pred-
ecessor in efforts to shore up failed and weak states around the world
in its global “War on Terror.” See James D. Fearon and David D.
Laitin, “Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States,”
International Security 28, no. 4 (2004): 5–43.
35. Robinson, The CNN Effect: The Myth of News, 40.
36. In an interview with an Israeli army planner, Gadi Wolfsfeld was told
that the subject of the news media came up very often in planning
operations, as “the media causes a great deal of problems.” The
importance of the potential media effects were so critical that media
clips were even incorporated into the training sessions for soldiers
going into the territories. Gadi Wolfsfeld, Media and Political
Conflict: News from the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997), 206.
37. The propaganda effect outlined here refers to the use of media to pro-
mote the government’s official policy. This is similar to Robinson
“enabling effect” in which a government policy already decided upon is
used by the media to promote the government’s agenda. Robinson,
The CNN Effect: The Myth of News, 40–41.
38. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. (Houghton Miffin Company, 2000).
39. Carruthers, Media at War, 29.
40. Ibid., 24–25.
41. The challenging CNN effect is used interchangeably with the chal-
lenging effect.