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NOTES
56. Michael Dobbs, “Qatar TV Station a Clear Channel to Middle East,”
The Washington Post, October 9, 2001, C1.
57. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, [Web site]; available from
http://unescostat.unesco.org/en/stats/stats0.htm.
58. Based on France, Italy, Spain, and UK data only.
59. Moisy, “The Foreign News Flow,” 8.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. The Economist Technology Quarterly, “Seeing Is Believing,” The
Economist, September 22, 2001, 7–8.
63. Institutional initiated news is defined as “the actions and pronounce-
ments of governments and sometimes supra-governmental organiza-
tions (such as the United Nations) and their spokespersons, ministers,
and leaders. . . . Diplomacy, peace negotiations, press conferences,
summits, and official visits are examples of institutional initiation.”
Events-driven news is defined as “coverage of activities that are, at
least at their initial occurrence, spontaneous and not managed by offi-
cials within institutional settings.” Steven Livingston and W. Lance
Bennett, “Gatekeepers, Indexing, and Live-Event News: Is Technology
Altering the Construction of News?” Political Communication 20,
no. 4 (2003): 373.
64. A study on American international news coverage on CNN demon-
strated an increase in both live coverage and events-driven news over
the 1990s. Ibid., 375–377.
65. Ibid., 370.
66. Ibid., 370–371.
67. Dunsmore, “The Next War: Live?” 3, 7.
68. CNN began using videophones in 1999. The videophone has become
so prominent in the transmission of international news at the begin-
ning of the twenty-first century that Steven Livingston refers to it as
the icon of international broadcasting. Cited in Livingston and
Bennett, “Gatekeepers,” 371.
69. According to U.S. Supreme Court justice Potter Steward, the First
Amendment (of the American constitution) creates “a fourth institu-
tion outside the government as an additional check on the three
official branches.” Cited in Mermin, Debating War and Peace, 6.
70. Pippa Norris, “News of the World,” in Politics and the Press, ed. Pippa
Norris (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997), 275.
71. Robert Entman, Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion
and U.S. Foreign Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 6.
72. This is exasperated by the trend toward sensationalism and infotain-
ment formats. See Livingston and Bennett, “Gatekeepers,” 359–360.
73. Amy E. Jasperson and Mansour O. El-Kikhai, “CNN and Al Jazeera’s
Media Coverage of America’s War in Afghanistan,” in Framing
Terrorism: The News Media, the Government and the Public, ed. Pippa